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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Leaves" redirects here. For other uses of "leaf" or "leaves", see <a href="Leaf_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Leaf (disambiguation)">Leaf (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

</p>

<p>A <b>leaf</b> (<abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr>: <b>leaves</b>) is a principal appendage of the <a href="Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stem</a> of a <a href="Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsau2006_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsau2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for <a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Leaves are collectively called <b>foliage</b>, as in "autumn foliage",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaupt1953_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaupt1953-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2009_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2009-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the leaves, stem, <a href="Flower" title="Flower">flower</a>, and <a href="Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> collectively form the <a href="Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">shoot</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most leaves, the primary <a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> is the <a href="Palisade_mesophyll" class="mw-redirect" title="Palisade mesophyll">palisade mesophyll</a> and is located on the upper side of the blade or lamina of the leaf,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsau2006_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsau2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in some species, including the mature foliage of <i><a href="Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">Eucalyptus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames_et_al1999_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames_et_al1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> palisade mesophyll is present on both sides and the leaves are said to be isobilateral. The leaf is an integral part of the stem system, and most leaves are flattened and have distinct upper (<a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms#adaxial" title="Glossary of botanical terms">adaxial</a>) and lower (<a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms#abaxial" title="Glossary of botanical terms">abaxial</a>) surfaces that differ in color, <a href="Trichome" title="Trichome">hairiness</a>, the number of <a href="Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> (pores that intake and output gases), the amount and structure of <a href="Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">epicuticular wax</a>, and other features. Leaves are mostly green in color due to the presence of a compound called <a href="Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> which is essential for photosynthesis as it absorbs light energy from the <a href="Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. A leaf with lighter-colored or white patches or edges is called a <a href="Variegation" title="Variegation">variegated leaf</a>.

</p><p>Leaves vary in shape, size, texture and color, depending on the species The broad, flat leaves with complex <a href="#Venation">venation</a> of <a href="Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> are known as <i>megaphylls</i> and the species that bear them (the majority) as broad-leaved or <a href="Euphyllophyte" title="Euphyllophyte">megaphyllous</a> plants, which also include <a href="Acrogymnosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrogymnosperm">acrogymnosperms</a> and <a href="Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>. In the <a href="Lycopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopods">lycopods</a>, with different evolutionary origins, the leaves are simple (with only a single vein) and are known as <i>microphylls</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some leaves, such as <a href="Bulb" title="Bulb">bulb</a> scales, are not above ground. In many aquatic species, the leaves are submerged in water. <a href="Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent</a> plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic function and may be dead at maturity, as in some <a href="Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">cataphylls</a> and <a href="Thorns%2C_spines%2C_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">spines</a>. Furthermore, several kinds of leaf-like structures found in vascular plants are not totally homologous with them. Examples include flattened plant stems called <a href="Phylloclade" title="Phylloclade">phylloclades</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cladode" class="extiw external" title="wikt:cladode">cladodes</a>, and flattened leaf stems called <a href="Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">phyllodes</a> which differ from leaves both in their structure and origin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2009_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2009-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooney-SovettsSattler1987_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooney-SovettsSattler1987-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some structures of non-vascular plants look and function much like leaves. Examples include the <a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms#phyllid" title="Glossary of botanical terms">phyllids</a> of <a href="Mosses" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosses">mosses</a> and <a href="Liverworts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liverworts">liverworts</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_characteristics">General characteristics</h2></div>

<p>Leaves are the most important organs of most <a href="Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsukaya2013_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsukaya2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Green plants are <a href="Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophic</a>, meaning that they do not obtain food from other living things but instead create their own food by <a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. They capture the energy in <a href="Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> and use it to make simple <a href="Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>, such as <a href="Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>, from <a href="Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) and water. The sugars are then stored as <a href="Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>, further processed by <a href="Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">chemical synthesis</a> into more complex organic molecules such as <a href="Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> or <a href="Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, the basic structural material in plant cell walls, or <a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolized</a> by <a href="Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a> to provide chemical energy to run cellular processes. The leaves draw water from the ground in the <a href="Transpiration_stream" title="Transpiration stream">transpiration stream</a> through a <a href="Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular conducting system</a> known as <a href="Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and obtain carbon dioxide from the <a href="Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> by diffusion through openings called <a href="Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> in the outer covering layer of the leaf (<a href="Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a>), while leaves are orientated to maximize their exposure to sunlight. Once sugar has been synthesized, it needs to be transported to areas of active growth such as the <a href="Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">shoots</a> and <a href="Root" title="Root">roots</a>. Vascular plants transport sucrose in a special tissue called the <a href="Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a>. The phloem and xylem are parallel to each other, but the transport of materials is usually in opposite directions. Within the leaf these vascular systems branch (ramify) to form veins which supply as much of the leaf as possible, ensuring that <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> carrying out photosynthesis are close to the transportation system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeugier2006_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeugier2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Typically leaves are broad, flat and thin (dorsiventrally flattened), thereby maximizing the surface area directly exposed to light and enabling the light to penetrate the <a href="Plant_cell#Types_of_plant_cells_and_tissues" title="Plant cell">tissues</a> and reach the <a href="Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>, thus promoting photosynthesis. They are arranged on the plant so as to expose their surfaces to light as efficiently as possible without shading each other, but there are many exceptions and complications. For instance, plants adapted to windy conditions may have <a href="Pendent" title="Pendent">pendent</a> leaves, such as in many <a href="Willow" title="Willow">willows</a> and <a href="Eucalypt" title="Eucalypt">eucalypts</a>. The flat, or laminar, shape also maximizes <a href="Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">thermal contact</a> with the surrounding air, promoting cooling. Functionally, in addition to carrying out photosynthesis, the leaf is the principal site of <a href="Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>, providing the energy required to draw the transpiration stream up from the roots, and <a href="Guttation" title="Guttation">guttation</a>.

</p><p>Many <a href="Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> have thin needle-like or scale-like leaves that can be advantageous in cold climates with frequent snow and frost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell2016_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are interpreted as reduced from <a href="Microphylls_and_megaphylls" title="Microphylls and megaphylls">megaphyllous</a> leaves of their <a href="Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some leaf forms are adapted to modulate the amount of light they absorb to avoid or mitigate excessive heat, <a href="Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> damage, or desiccation, or to sacrifice light-absorption efficiency in favor of protection from herbivory. For <a href="Xerophyte" title="Xerophyte">xerophytes</a> the major constraint is not light <a href="Radiant_flux" title="Radiant flux">flux</a> or <a href="Irradiance" title="Irradiance">intensity</a>, but drought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillert_et_al1992_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillert_et_al1992-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="Leaf_window" title="Leaf window">window plants</a> such as <i><a href="Fenestraria" title="Fenestraria">Fenestraria</a></i> species and some <i><a href="Haworthia" title="Haworthia">Haworthia</a></i> species such as <i>Haworthia tesselata</i> and <i><a href="Haworthia_truncata" title="Haworthia truncata">Haworthia truncata</a></i> are examples of xerophytes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayer1982_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayer1982-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Leaves function to store chemical energy and water (especially in <a href="Succulents" class="mw-redirect" title="Succulents">succulents</a>) and may become specialized organs serving other functions, such as <a href="Tendril" title="Tendril">tendrils</a> of <a href="Pea" title="Pea">peas</a> and other <a href="Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a>, the protective <a href="Thorns%2C_spines%2C_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">spines</a> of <a href="Cactus" title="Cactus">cacti</a>, and the insect traps in <a href="Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">carnivorous plants</a> such as <i><a href="Nepenthes" title="Nepenthes">Nepenthes</a></i> and <i><a href="Sarracenia" title="Sarracenia">Sarracenia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leaves are the fundamental structural units from which <a href="Conifer_cone" title="Conifer cone">cones</a> are constructed in <a href="Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a> (each cone scale is a modified megaphyll leaf known as a <a href="Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">sporophyll</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 408">: 408 </span></sup> and from which flowers are constructed in <a href="Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 445">: 445 </span></sup>

</p>

<p>The internal organization of most kinds of leaves has evolved to maximize exposure of the photosynthetic <a href="Organelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Organelles">organelles</a> (<a href="Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>) to light and to increase the absorption of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> while at the same time controlling water loss. Their surfaces are waterproofed by the <a href="Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">plant cuticle</a>, and gas exchange between the mesophyll cells and the atmosphere is controlled by minute (length and width measured in tens of μm) stomata which open or close to regulate the rate exchange of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>, <a href="Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O<sub>2</sub>), and <a href="Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> into and out of the internal intercellular space system. Stomatal opening is controlled by the <a href="Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">turgor pressure</a> in a pair of <a href="Guard_cell" title="Guard cell">guard cells</a> that surround the stomatal aperture. In any square centimeter of a plant leaf, there may be from 1,000 to 100,000 stomata.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrogh2010_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrogh2010-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The shape and structure of leaves vary considerably from species to species of plant, depending largely on their adaptation to climate and available light, but also to other factors such as grazing animals, available nutrients, and ecological competition from other plants. Considerable changes in leaf type occur within species, too, for example as a plant matures (<i>Eucalyptus</i> species commonly have isobilateral, pendent leaves when mature and dominating their neighbors; however, such trees tend to have erect or horizontal <a href="Dorsiventral" title="Dorsiventral">dorsiventral</a> leaves as seedlings, when their growth is limited by the available light.)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesBell2000_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamesBell2000-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other factors include the need to balance water loss at high temperature and low humidity against the need to absorb CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>. In most plants, leaves also are the primary organs responsible for <a href="Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> and <a href="Guttation" title="Guttation">guttation</a> (beads of fluid forming at leaf margins).

</p><p>Leaves can also store food and water and are modified accordingly to meet these functions, for example in the leaves of succulent plants and in <a href="Bulb" title="Bulb">bulb</a> scales. The concentration of photosynthetic structures in leaves requires that they be richer in <a href="Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, <a href="Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>, and sugars than, say, woody stem tissues. Accordingly, leaves are prominent in the <a href="Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diet</a> of many <a href="Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>. Correspondingly, leaves represent heavy investment on the part of the plants bearing them, and their retention or disposition are the subject of elaborate strategies for dealing with pest pressures, seasonal conditions, and protective measures such as the growth of thorns and the production of <a href="Phytolith" title="Phytolith">phytoliths</a>, <a href="Lignin" title="Lignin">lignins</a>, <a href="Tannin" title="Tannin">tannins</a> and <a href="Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a>.

</p><p><a href="Deciduous" title="Deciduous">Deciduous</a> plants in cold temperate regions typically shed their leaves in <a href="Autumn" title="Autumn">autumn</a>, whereas in areas with a severe <a href="Dry_season" title="Dry season">dry season</a>, some plants may shed their leaves until the dry season ends. In either case, the shed leaves often contribute their retained nutrients to the soil where they fall. In contrast, many other non-seasonal plants, such as <a href="Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palms</a> and conifers, retain their leaves for long periods; <i><a href="Welwitschia" title="Welwitschia">Welwitschia</a></i> retains its two main leaves throughout a lifetime that may exceed a thousand years.

</p><p>The leaf-like organs of <a href="Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophytes</a> (e.g., <a href="Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a> and <a href="Marchantiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Marchantiophyta">liverworts</a>), known as <a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms#phyllid" title="Glossary of botanical terms">phyllids</a>, differ greatly morphologically from the leaves of <a href="Vascular_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular plants">vascular plants</a>. In most cases, they lack vascular tissue, are a single cell thick and have no <a href="Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">cuticle</a>, stomata, or internal system of intercellular spaces. (The phyllids of the moss family <a href="Polytrichaceae" title="Polytrichaceae">Polytrichaceae</a> are notable exceptions.) The phyllids of bryophytes are only present on the <a href="Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a>, while in contrast the leaves of vascular plants are only present on the <a href="Sporophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporophytes">sporophytes</a>. These can further develop into either vegetative or reproductive structures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Simple, vascularized leaves (<a href="Microphylls" class="mw-redirect" title="Microphylls">microphylls</a>), such as those of the early Devonian lycopsid <i><a href="Baragwanathia" title="Baragwanathia">Baragwanathia</a></i>, first evolved as enations, extensions of the stem. True leaves or euphylls of larger size and with more complex venation did not become widespread in other groups until the Devonian period, by which time the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere had dropped significantly. This occurred independently in several separate lineages of vascular plants, in <a href="Progymnosperm" title="Progymnosperm">progymnosperms</a> like <i><a href="Archaeopteris" title="Archaeopteris">Archaeopteris</a></i>, in <a href="Sphenopsida" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphenopsida">Sphenopsida</a>, <a href="Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and later in the <a href="Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a> and <a href="Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a>. Euphylls are also referred to as macrophylls or megaphylls (large leaves).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Glossary_of_leaf_morphology" title="Glossary of leaf morphology">Glossary of leaf morphology</a></div>

<p>

A structurally complete leaf of an <a href="Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperm</a> consists of a <a href="Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">petiole</a> (leaf stalk), a lamina (leaf blade), <a href="Stipule" title="Stipule">stipules</a> (small structures located to either side of the base of the petiole) and a sheath. Not every species produces leaves with all of these structural components. The proximal stalk or petiole is called a <a href="Stipe_(botany)" title="Stipe (botany)">stipe</a> in <a href="Ferns" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferns">ferns</a>. The lamina is the expanded, flat component of the leaf which contains the <a href="Chloroplasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplasts">chloroplasts</a>. The sheath is a structure, typically at the base that fully or partially clasps the <a href="Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stem</a> above the node, where the leaf is attached. Leaf sheathes typically occur in <a href="Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a> (grasses) and <a href="Apiaceae" title="Apiaceae">Apiaceae</a> (umbellifers). Between the sheath and the lamina, there may be a <a href="Pseudopetiole" title="Pseudopetiole">pseudopetiole</a>, a petiole like structure. Pseudopetioles occur in some <a href="Monocotyledons" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocotyledons">monocotyledons</a> including <a href="Bananas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bananas">bananas</a>, <a href="Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palms</a> and <a href="Bamboos" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamboos">bamboos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011pp.&nbsp;356–357_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2011pp.&nbsp;356–357-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stipules may be conspicuous (e.g. <a href="Beans" class="mw-redirect" title="Beans">beans</a> and <a href="Roses" class="mw-redirect" title="Roses">roses</a>), soon falling or otherwise not obvious as in <a href="Moraceae" title="Moraceae">Moraceae</a> or absent altogether as in the <a href="Magnoliaceae" title="Magnoliaceae">Magnoliaceae</a>. A petiole may be absent (apetiolate), or the blade may not be laminar (flattened). The petiole mechanically links the leaf to the plant and provides the route for transfer of water and sugars to and from the leaf. The lamina is typically the location of the majority of photosynthesis. The upper (<a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms#A" title="Glossary of botanical terms">adaxial</a>) angle between a leaf and a stem is known as the axil of the leaf. It is often the location of a <a href="Bud" title="Bud">bud</a>. Structures located there are called "axillary".</p><p>External leaf characteristics, such as shape, margin, hairs, the petiole, and the presence of stipules and glands, are frequently important for identifying plants to family, genus or <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> levels, and botanists have developed a rich <a href="Terminology" title="Terminology">terminology</a> for describing leaf characteristics. Leaves almost always have determinate growth. They grow to a specific pattern and shape and then stop. Other plant parts like stems or roots have non-determinate growth, and will usually continue to grow as long as they have the resources to do so.

</p>

<p>The type of leaf is usually characteristic of a species (monomorphic), although some species produce more than one type of leaf (dimorphic or <a href="Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphic</a>). The longest leaves are those of the <a href="Raffia_palm" title="Raffia palm">Raffia palm</a>, <i>R. regalis</i> which may be up to 25 m (82 ft) long and 3 m (9.8 ft) wide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallé1977_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallé1977-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terminology associated with the description of leaf morphology is presented, in illustrated form, at <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Botany/Leaves_(forms)" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Botany/Leaves (forms)">Wikibooks</a>.

</p>

<p>Where leaves are basal, and lie on the ground, they are referred to as <a href="Glossary_of_plant_morphology#prostrate" title="Glossary of plant morphology">prostrate</a>.

</p><p>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_leaf_types">Basic leaf types</h3></div>

<p><a href="Perennial" title="Perennial">Perennial</a> plants whose leaves are shed annually are said to have deciduous leaves, while leaves that remain through winter are <a href="Evergreen" title="Evergreen">evergreens</a>. Leaves attached to stems by stalks (known as <a href="Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">petioles</a>) are called petiolate, and if attached directly to the stem with no petiole they are called sessile.<sup id="cite_ref-types_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-types-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>Ferns have <a href="Frond" title="Frond">fronds</a>.</li>

<li>Conifer leaves are typically needle- or awl-shaped or scale-like; they are usually evergreen but can sometimes be deciduous. Usually, they have a single vein.</li>

<li>The standard form of flowering plants (angiosperm) includes <a href="Stipule" title="Stipule">stipules</a>, a petiole, and a <a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms#lamina" title="Glossary of botanical terms">lamina</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophytes</a> have <a href="Microphylls_and_megaphylls" title="Microphylls and megaphylls">microphylls</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Monocotyledon#Leaves" title="Monocotyledon">Sheath</a> leaves are the type found in most <a href="Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a> and many other monocots.</li>

<li>Other specialized leaves include those of <i><a href="Nepenthes" title="Nepenthes">Nepenthes</a></i>, a pitcher plant.</li></ul>

<p><a href="Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">Dicot</a> leaves have blades with pinnate venation (where major veins diverge from one large mid-vein and have smaller connecting networks between them). Less commonly, dicot leaf blades may have palmate venation (several large veins diverging from <a href="Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">petiole</a> to leaf edges). Finally, some exhibit parallel venation.<sup id="cite_ref-types_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-types-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">Monocot</a> leaves in temperate climates usually have narrow blades and usually parallel venation converging at leaf tips or edges. Some also have pinnate venation.<sup id="cite_ref-types_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-types-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrangement_on_the_stem">Arrangement on the stem</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Phyllotaxis" title="Phyllotaxis">Phyllotaxis</a></div>

<p>The arrangement of leaves on the stem is known as <a href="Phyllotaxis" title="Phyllotaxis">phyllotaxis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large variety of phyllotactic patterns occur in nature:

</p>

<dl><dt>Alternate</dt>

<dd>One leaf, branch, or flower part attaches at each point or node on the stem, and leaves alternate direction—to a greater or lesser degree—along the stem.</dd>

<dt>Basal</dt>

<dd>Arising from the base of the plant.</dd>

<dt>Cauline</dt>

<dd>Attached to the aerial stem.</dd>

<dt>Opposite</dt>

<dd>Two leaves, branches, or flower parts attach at each point or node on the stem. Leaf attachments are paired at each node.</dd>

<dt><a href="Decussate" class="mw-redirect" title="Decussate">Decussate</a></dt>

<dd>An opposite arrangement in which each successive pair is rotated 90° from the previous.</dd>

<dt><a href="Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorled</a>, or verticillate</dt>

<dd>Three or more leaves, branches, or flower parts attach at each point or node on the stem. As with opposite leaves, successive whorls may or may not be decussate, rotated by half the angle between the leaves in the whorl (i.e., successive whorls of three rotated 60°, whorls of four rotated 45°, etc.). Opposite leaves may appear whorled near the tip of the stem. <b>Pseudoverticillate</b> describes an arrangement only appearing whorled, but not actually so.</dd>

<dt>Rosulate</dt>

<dd>Leaves form a <a href="Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">rosette</a>.</dd>

<dd>The term <i>distichous</i> literally means <i>two rows</i>. Leaves in this arrangement may be alternate or opposite in their attachment. The term <i>2-ranked</i> is equivalent. The terms <i>tristichous</i> and <i>tetrastichous</i> are sometimes encountered. For example, the "leaves" (actually microphylls) of most species of <i><a href="Selaginella" title="Selaginella">Selaginella</a></i> are tetrastichous but not decussate.</dd></dl>

<p>In the simplest mathematical models of phyllotaxis, the apex of the stem is represented as a circle. Each new node is formed at the apex, and it is rotated by a constant angle from the previous node. This angle is called the <i>divergence angle</i>. The number of leaves that grow from a node depends on the plant species. When a single leaf grows from each node, and when the stem is held straight, the leaves form a <a href="Helix" title="Helix">helix</a>.

</p><p>The divergence angle is often represented as a fraction of a full rotation around the stem. A rotation fraction of 1/2 (a divergence angle of 180°) produces an alternate arrangement, such as in <a href="Gasteria" title="Gasteria">Gasteria</a> or the fan-aloe <a href="Kumara_plicatilis" title="Kumara plicatilis">Kumara plicatilis</a>. Rotation fractions of 1/3 (divergence angles of 120°) occur in <a href="Beech" title="Beech">beech</a> and <a href="Hazel" title="Hazel">hazel</a>. <a href="Oak" title="Oak">Oak</a> and <a href="Apricot" title="Apricot">apricot</a> rotate by 2/5, sunflowers, poplar, and pear by 3/8, and in willow and almond the fraction is 5/13.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These arrangements are periodic. The <a href="Denominator" class="mw-redirect" title="Denominator">denominator</a> of the rotation fraction indicates the number of leaves in one period, while the <a href="Numerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerator">numerator</a> indicates the number of complete turns or <i>gyres</i> made in one period. For example:

</p>

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</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>): two leaves in one circle (alternate leaves)</li>

<li>120° (or <span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span>): three leaves in one circle</li>

<li>144° (or <span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span>): five leaves in two gyres</li>

<li>135° (or <span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span>): eight leaves in three gyres.</li></ul>

<p>Most divergence angles are related to the sequence of <a href="Fibonacci_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibonacci numbers">Fibonacci numbers</a> <span class="texhtml"><i>F</i><sub><i>n</i></sub></span>. This sequence begins 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13; each term is the sum of the previous two. Rotation fractions are often quotients <span class="texhtml"><i>F</i><sub><i>n</i></sub> / <i>F</i><sub><i>n</i> + 2</sub></span> of a Fibonacci number by the number two terms later in the sequence. This is the case for the fractions 1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/8, and 5/13. The ratio between successive Fibonacci numbers tends to the <a href="Golden_ratio" title="Golden ratio">golden ratio</a> <span class="texhtml">φ = (1 + √5)/2</span>. When a circle is divided into two arcs whose lengths are in the ratio <span class="texhtml">1:φ</span>, the angle formed by the smaller arc is the <a href="Golden_angle" title="Golden angle">golden angle</a>, which is <span class="texhtml">1/φ<sup>2</sup> × 360° ≈ 137.5°</span>. Because of this, many divergence angles are approximately <span class="texhtml">137.5°</span>. In plants where a pair of opposite leaves grows from each node, the leaves form a double helix. If the nodes do not rotate (a rotation fraction of zero and a divergence angle of 0°), the two helices become a pair of parallel lines, creating a distichous arrangement as in <a href="Maple" title="Maple">maple</a> or <a href="Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> trees. More common in a decussate pattern, in which each node rotates by 1/4 (90°) as in the herb <a href="Basil" title="Basil">basil</a>. The leaves of tricussate plants such as <a href="Nerium_oleander" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerium oleander">Nerium oleander</a> form a triple helix. The leaves of some plants do not form helices. In some plants, the divergence angle changes as the plant grows.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In orixate phyllotaxis, named after <i><a href="Orixa_japonica" title="Orixa japonica">Orixa japonica</a></i>, the divergence angle is not constant. Instead, it is periodic and follows the sequence 180°, 90°, 180°, 270°.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divisions_of_the_blade">Divisions of the blade</h3></div>

<p>Two basic forms of leaves can be described considering the way the blade (lamina) is divided. A <b>simple leaf</b> has an undivided blade. However, the leaf may be <i>dissected</i> to form lobes, but the gaps between lobes do not reach to the main vein. A <b>compound leaf</b> has a fully subdivided blade, each <a href="Leaflet_(botany)" title="Leaflet (botany)">leaflet</a> of the blade being separated along a main or secondary vein. The leaflets may have petiolules and stipels, the equivalents of the petioles and stipules of leaves. Because each leaflet can appear to be a simple leaf, it is important to recognize where the petiole occurs to identify a compound leaf. Compound leaves are a characteristic of some families of higher plants, such as the <a href="Fabaceae" title="Fabaceae">Fabaceae</a>. The middle vein of a compound leaf or a <a href="Frond" title="Frond">frond</a>, when it is present, is called a <a href="Rachis" title="Rachis">rachis</a>.

</p>

<dl><dt>Palmately compound</dt>

<dd>The leaflets all have a common point of attachment at the end of the petiole, radiating like fingers of a hand; for example, <i><a href="Cannabis" title="Cannabis">Cannabis</a></i> (hemp) and <i><a href="Aesculus" title="Aesculus">Aesculus</a></i> (buckeyes).</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Pinnately compound</dt>

<dd>Leaflets are arranged either side of the main axis, or <a href="Rachis" title="Rachis">rachis</a>.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1228772891">

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</style></dd></dl>

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="odd_pinnate"><dfn>Odd pinnate</dfn></dt><dd>With a terminal leaflet; for example, <i><a href="Ash_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash tree">Fraxinus</a></i> (ash).</dd><dt id="even_pinnate"><dfn>Even pinnate</dfn></dt><dd>Lacking a terminal leaflet; for example, <i><a href="Swietenia" title="Swietenia">Swietenia</a></i> (mahogany). A specific type of even pinnate is <a href="Glossary_of_leaf_morphology#bifoliolate" title="Glossary of leaf morphology">bifoliolate</a>, where leaves only consist of two leaflets; for example, <i><a href="Hymenaea" title="Hymenaea">Hymenaea</a></i>.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Bipinnately compound</dt>

<dd>Leaves are twice divided: the leaflets (technically "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subleaflet" class="extiw external" title="wikt:subleaflet">subleaflets</a>") are arranged along a secondary axis that is one of several branching off the rachis. Each leaflet is called a <i>pinnule</i>. The group of pinnules on each secondary vein forms a <i>pinna</i>; for example, <i><a href="Albizia" title="Albizia">Albizia</a></i> (silk tree).</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Trifoliate (or trifoliolate)</dt>

<dd>A pinnate leaf with just three leaflets; for example, <i><a href="Clover" title="Clover">Trifolium</a></i> (clover), <i><a href="Laburnum" title="Laburnum">Laburnum</a></i> (laburnum), and some species of <i><a href="Toxicodendron" title="Toxicodendron">Toxicodendron</a></i> (for instance, <a href="Toxicodendron_radicans" title="Toxicodendron radicans">poison ivy</a>).</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Pinnatifid</dt>

<dd>Pinnately dissected to the central vein, but with the leaflets not entirely separate; for example, <i><a href="Polypodium" title="Polypodium">Polypodium</a></i>, some <i><a href="Sorbus" title="Sorbus">Sorbus</a></i> (whitebeams). In pinnately veined leaves the central vein is known as the <i>midrib</i>.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Characteristics_of_the_petiole">Characteristics of the petiole</h3></div>

<p>Leaves which have a petiole (leaf stalk) are said to be <i>petiolate</i>. <a href="Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessile</a> (epetiolate) leaves have no petiole, and the blade attaches directly to the stem. Subpetiolate leaves are nearly petiolate or have an extremely short petiole and may appear to be sessile. In <b>clasping</b> or <a href="Decurrent" title="Decurrent">decurrent</a> leaves, the blade partially surrounds the stem. When the leaf base completely surrounds the stem, the leaves are said to be <b>perfoliate</b>, such as in <i><a href="Eupatorium_perfoliatum" title="Eupatorium perfoliatum">Eupatorium perfoliatum</a></i>. In peltate leaves, the petiole attaches to the blade inside the blade margin. In some <i><a href="Acacia" title="Acacia">Acacia</a></i> species, such as the koa tree (<i><a href="Acacia_koa" title="Acacia koa">Acacia koa</a></i>), the petioles are expanded or broadened and function like leaf blades; these are called <a href="Phyllode" title="Phyllode">phyllodes</a>. There may or may not be normal pinnate leaves at the tip of the phyllode. A <a href="Stipule" title="Stipule">stipule</a>, present on the leaves of many <a href="Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">dicotyledons</a>, is an appendage on each side at the base of the petiole, resembling a small leaf. Stipules may be lasting and not be shed (a stipulate leaf, such as in <a href="Rose" title="Rose">roses</a> and <a href="Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>), or be shed as the leaf expands, leaving a stipule scar on the twig (an exstipulate leaf). The situation, arrangement, and structure of the stipules is called the "stipulation".

</p>

<dl><dt>Free, lateral</dt>

<dd>As in <i><a href="Hibiscus" title="Hibiscus">Hibiscus</a></i>.</dd>

<dt>Adnate</dt>

<dd>Fused to the petiole base, as in <i><a href="Rose" title="Rose">Rosa</a></i>.</dd>

<dt>Ochreate</dt>

<dd>Provided with <a href="Ochrea" title="Ochrea">ochrea</a>, or sheath-formed stipules, as in <a href="Polygonaceae" title="Polygonaceae">Polygonaceae</a>; e.g., <a href="Rhubarb" title="Rhubarb">rhubarb</a>.</dd>

<dt>Encircling the petiole base</dt>

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="interpetiolar"><dfn><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interpetiolar_stipule" class="extiw external" title="wikt:interpetiolar stipule">Interpetiolar</a></dfn></dt><dd>Between the petioles of two opposite leaves, as in <a href="Rubiaceae" title="Rubiaceae">Rubiaceae</a>.</dd><dt id="intrapetiolar"><dfn><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intrapetiolar_stipule" class="extiw external" title="wikt:intrapetiolar stipule">Intrapetiolar</a></dfn></dt><dd>Between the petiole and the subtending stem, as in <a href="Malpighiaceae" title="Malpighiaceae">Malpighiaceae</a>.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Veins">Veins</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Venation">§ Venation</a>, and <a href="#Vascular_tissue">§ Vascular tissue</a></div>

<p>Veins (sometimes referred to as nerves) constitute one of the most visible features of leaves. The veins in a leaf represent the vascular structure of the organ, extending into the leaf via the petiole and providing transportation of water and nutrients between leaf and stem, and play a crucial role in the maintenance of leaf water status and photosynthetic capacity. They also play a role in the mechanical support of the leaf.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERolland-Lagan_et_al2009_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERolland-Lagan_et_al2009-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalls2011_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalls2011-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the lamina of the leaf, while some vascular plants possess only a single vein, in most this vasculature generally divides (ramifies) according to a variety of patterns (venation) and form cylindrical bundles, usually lying in the median plane of the <a href="#Mesophyll">mesophyll</a>, between the two layers of <a href="#Epidermis">epidermis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickison2000_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickison2000-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pattern is often specific to taxa, and of which angiosperms possess two main types, <a href="Parallel_(geometry)" title="Parallel (geometry)">parallel</a> and <a href="#Venation">reticulate</a> (net like). In general, parallel venation is typical of monocots, while reticulate is more typical of <a href="Eudicots" title="Eudicots">eudicots</a> and <a href="Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">magnoliids</a> ("dicots"), though there are many exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudall2007_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudall2007-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickison2000_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickison2000-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The vein or veins entering the leaf from the petiole are called primary or first-order veins. The veins branching from these are secondary or second-order veins. These primary and secondary veins are considered major veins or lower order veins, though some authors include third order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each subsequent branching is sequentially numbered, and these are the higher order veins, each branching being associated with a narrower vein diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In parallel veined leaves, the primary veins run parallel and equidistant to each other for most of the length of the leaf and then converge or fuse (anastomose) towards the apex. Usually, many smaller minor veins interconnect these primary veins but may terminate with very fine vein endings in the mesophyll. Minor veins are more typical of angiosperms, which may have as many as four higher orders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In contrast, leaves with reticulate venation have a single (sometimes more) primary vein in the center of the leaf, referred to as the midrib or costa, which is continuous with the vasculature of the petiole. The secondary veins, also known as second order veins or lateral veins, branch off from the midrib and extend toward the leaf margins. These often terminate in a <a href="Hydathode" title="Hydathode">hydathode</a>, a secretory organ, at the margin. In turn, smaller veins branch from the secondary veins, known as tertiary or third order (or higher order) veins, forming a dense reticulate pattern. The areas or islands of mesophyll lying between the higher order veins, are called <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/areola" class="extiw external" title="wikt:areola">areoles</a>. Some of the smallest veins (veinlets) may have their endings in the areoles, a process known as areolation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These minor veins act as the sites of exchange between the mesophyll and the plant's vascular system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalls2011_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalls2011-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, minor veins collect the products of photosynthesis (photosynthate) from the cells where it takes place, while major veins are responsible for its transport outside of the leaf. At the same time water is being transported in the opposite direction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUeno_et_al2006_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUeno_et_al2006-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudall2007_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudall2007-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickison2000_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickison2000-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The number of vein endings is variable, as is whether second order veins end at the margin, or link back to other veins.<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many elaborate variations on the patterns that the leaf veins form, and these have functional implications. Of these, angiosperms have the greatest diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within these the major veins function as the support and distribution network for leaves and are correlated with leaf shape. For instance, the parallel venation found in most monocots correlates with their elongated leaf shape and wide leaf base, while reticulate venation is seen in simple entire leaves, while digitate leaves typically have venation in which three or more primary veins diverge radially from a single point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERunions_et_al2005_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERunions_et_al2005-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalls2011_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalls2011-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MMsvt_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MMsvt-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In evolutionary terms, early emerging taxa tend to have dichotomous branching with reticulate systems emerging later. Veins appeared in the <a href="Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>, prior to the appearance of angiosperms in the <a href="Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, during which vein hierarchy appeared enabling higher function, larger leaf size and adaption to a wider variety of climatic conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it is the more complex pattern, branching veins appear to be <a href="Plesiomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorph">plesiomorphic</a> and in some form were present in ancient <a href="Seed_plant" title="Seed plant">seed plants</a> as long as 250 million years ago. A pseudo-reticulate venation that is actually a highly modified penniparallel one is an <a href="Autapomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Autapomorph">autapomorphy</a> of some <a href="Melanthiaceae" title="Melanthiaceae">Melanthiaceae</a>, which are monocots; e.g., <i><a href="Paris_quadrifolia" title="Paris quadrifolia">Paris quadrifolia</a></i> (true-lover's knot). In leaves with reticulate venation, veins form a scaffolding matrix imparting mechanical rigidity to leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagchi_et_al2016_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagchi_et_al2016-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology_changes_within_a_single_plant">Morphology changes within a single plant</h3></div>

<dl><dt><a href="Homoblasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoblasty">Homoblasty</a></dt>

<dd>Characteristic in which a plant has small changes in leaf size, shape, and growth habit between juvenile and adult stages, in contrast to;</dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Heteroblasty" title="Heteroblasty">Heteroblasty</a></dt>

<dd>Characteristic in which a plant has marked changes in leaf size, shape, and growth habit between juvenile and adult stages.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medium-scale_features">Medium-scale features</h3></div>

<p>Leaves are normally extensively vascularized and typically have networks of <a href="Vascular_bundles" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular bundles">vascular bundles</a> containing <a href="Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>, which supplies water for <a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, and <a href="Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a>, which transports the <a href="Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a> produced by photosynthesis. Many leaves are covered in <a href="Trichome" title="Trichome">trichomes</a> (small hairs) which have diverse structures and functions.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small-scale_features">Small-scale features</h3></div>

<p>The major tissue systems present are

</p>

<ul><li>The <b><a href="Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a></b>, which covers the upper and lower surfaces</li>

<li>The <b><a href="#Mesophyll">mesophyll tissue</a></b>, which consists of photosynthetic cells rich in <a href="Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>. (also called <b>chlorenchyma</b>)</li>

<li>The arrangement of <b>veins</b> (the <a href="Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissue</a>)</li></ul>

<p>These three tissue systems typically form a regular organization at the cellular scale. Specialized cells that differ markedly from surrounding cells, and which often synthesize specialized products such as crystals, are termed <b>idioblasts</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECote2009_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECote2009-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_leaf_tissues">Major leaf tissues</h3></div>

<div class="gallerytext">Cross-section of a leaf</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Epidermal cells</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Spongy mesophyll cells</div>

</li>

</ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epidermis">Epidermis</h4></div>

<p>The <a href="Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a> is the outer layer of <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> covering the leaf. It is covered with a waxy <a href="Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">cuticle</a> which is impermeable to liquid water and water vapor and forms the boundary separating the plant's inner cells from the external world. The cuticle is in some cases thinner on the lower epidermis than on the upper epidermis, and is generally thicker on leaves from dry climates as compared with those from wet climates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements1905_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClements1905-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epidermis serves several functions: protection against water loss by way of <a href="Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>, regulation of gas exchange and secretion of <a href="Secondary_metabolite" title="Secondary metabolite">metabolic</a> compounds. Most leaves show dorsoventral anatomy: The upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions.

</p><p>The epidermis tissue includes several differentiated cell types; epidermal cells, epidermal hair cells (<a href="Trichome" title="Trichome">trichomes</a>), cells in the stomatal complex; guard cells and subsidiary cells. The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, and least specialized and form the majority of the epidermis. They are typically more elongated in the leaves of <a href="Monocot" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocot">monocots</a> than in those of <a href="Dicot" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicot">dicots</a>.

</p><p>Chloroplasts are generally absent in epidermal cells, the exception being the guard cells of the <a href="Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a>. The stomatal pores perforate the epidermis and are surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts, forming a specialized cell group known as the stomatal complex. The opening and closing of the stomatal aperture is controlled by the stomatal complex and regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the leaf. Stomata therefore play the important role in allowing photosynthesis without letting the leaf dry out. In a typical leaf, the stomata are more numerous over the abaxial (lower) epidermis than the adaxial (upper) epidermis and are more numerous in plants from cooler climates.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesophyll">Mesophyll</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the term <i>Mesophyll</i> in the size classification of leaves, see <a href="Leaf_size" title="Leaf size">Leaf size</a>.</div>

<p>Most of the interior of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis is a <i><a href="Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchyma</a></i> (ground tissue) or <i><a href="Chlorenchyma" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorenchyma">chlorenchyma</a></i> tissue called the <b>mesophyll</b> (Greek for "middle leaf"). This <a href="Assimilation_(biology)" title="Assimilation (biology)">assimilation</a> tissue is the primary location of photosynthesis in the plant. The products of photosynthesis are called "assimilates".

</p><p>In ferns and most flowering plants, the mesophyll is divided into two layers:

</p>

<ul><li>An upper <b><a href="Palisade_cell" title="Palisade cell">palisade layer</a></b> of vertically elongated cells, one to two cells thick, directly beneath the adaxial epidermis, with intercellular air spaces between them. Its cells contain many more chloroplasts than the spongy layer. Cylindrical cells, with the <i><a href="Chloroplasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplasts">chloroplasts</a></i> close to the walls of the cell, can take optimal advantage of light. The slight separation of the cells provides maximum <a href="Absorption_(chemistry)" title="Absorption (chemistry)">absorption</a> of carbon dioxide. Sun leaves have a multi-layered palisade layer, while shade leaves or older leaves closer to the soil are single-layered.</li>

<li>Beneath the palisade layer is the <b><a href="Spongy_tissue" title="Spongy tissue">spongy layer</a></b>. The cells of the spongy layer are more branched and not so tightly packed, so that there are large intercellular air spaces between them. The pores or <i>stomata</i> of the epidermis open into substomatal chambers, which are connected to the intercellular air spaces between the spongy and palisade mesophyll cell, so that oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor can diffuse into and out of the leaf and access the mesophyll cells during respiration, photosynthesis and transpiration.</li></ul>

<p>Leaves are normally green, due to chlorophyll in chloroplasts in the mesophyll cells. Some plants have leaves of different colors due to the presence of <a href="Accessory_pigment" title="Accessory pigment">accessory pigments</a> such as <a href="Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> in their mesophyll cells.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vascular_tissue">Vascular tissue</h4></div>

<p>The <b>veins</b> are the <a href="Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissue</a> of the leaf and are located in the spongy layer of the mesophyll. The pattern of the veins is called <a href="#Venation_(arrangement_of_the_veins)">venation</a>. In <a href="Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a> the venation is typically parallel in <a href="Monocotyledons" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocotyledons">monocotyledons</a> and forms an interconnecting network in <a href="Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">broad-leaved plants</a>. They were once thought to be typical examples of <a href="Pattern_formation" title="Pattern formation">pattern formation</a> through <a href="Ramification_(botany)" title="Ramification (botany)">ramification</a>, but they may instead exemplify a pattern formed in a stress <a href="Tensor_field" title="Tensor field">tensor field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECouder_et_al2002_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECouder_et_al2002-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorson_et_al2009_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorson_et_al2009-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaguna_et_al2008_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaguna_et_al2008-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A vein is made up of a <a href="Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">vascular bundle</a>. At the core of each bundle are clusters of two

distinct types of conducting cells:

</p>

<dl><dt><a href="Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></dt>

<dd>Cells that bring water and minerals from the roots into the leaf.</dd>

<dt><a href="Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></dt>

<dd>Cells that usually move <a href="Sap" title="Sap">sap</a>, with dissolved sucrose (glucose to sucrose) produced by photosynthesis in the leaf, out of the leaf.</dd></dl>

<p>The xylem typically lies on the adaxial side of the vascular bundle and the phloem typically lies on the abaxial side. Both are embedded in a dense parenchyma tissue, called the sheath, which usually includes some structural collenchyma tissue.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leaf_development">Leaf development</h2></div>

<p>According to <a href="Agnes_Arber" title="Agnes Arber">Agnes Arber</a>'s partial-shoot theory of the leaf, leaves are partial shoots,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArber1950_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArber1950-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> being derived from leaf <a href="Primordia" class="mw-redirect" title="Primordia">primordia</a> of the shoot apex. Early in development they are dorsiventrally flattened with both dorsal and ventral surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compound leaves are closer to shoots than simple leaves. Developmental studies have shown that compound leaves, like shoots, may branch in three dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutishauserSattler1997_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutishauserSattler1997-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacroix_et_al2003_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacroix_et_al2003-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the basis of molecular genetics, Eckardt and Baum (2010) concluded that "it is now generally accepted that compound leaves express both leaf and shoot properties."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEckardtBaum2010_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckardtBaum2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many dicotyledonous leaves show endogenously driven daily rhythmicity in growth.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</h3></div>

<p>Plants respond and adapt to environmental factors, such as light and mechanical stress from wind. Leaves need to support their own mass and align themselves in such a way as to optimize their exposure to the sun, generally more or less horizontally. However, horizontal alignment maximizes exposure to bending forces and failure from stresses such as wind, snow, hail, falling debris, animals, and abrasion from surrounding foliage and plant structures. Overall leaves are relatively flimsy with regard to other plant structures such as stems, branches and roots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Both leaf blade and petiole structure influence the leaf's response to forces such as wind, allowing a degree of repositioning to minimize <a href="Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a> and damage, as opposed to resistance. Leaf movement like this may also increase <a href="Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a> of the air close to the surface of the leaf, which thins the <a href="Boundary_layer" title="Boundary layer">boundary layer</a> of air immediately adjacent to the surface, increasing the capacity for gas and heat exchange, as well as photosynthesis. Strong wind forces may result in diminished leaf number and surface area, which while reducing drag, involves a <a href="Trade_off" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade off">trade off</a> of also reducing photosynthesis. Thus, leaf design may involve compromise between carbon gain, thermoregulation and water loss on the one hand, and the cost of sustaining both static and dynamic loads. In vascular plants, perpendicular forces are spread over a larger area and are relatively flexible in both bending and <a href="Torsion_(mechanics)" title="Torsion (mechanics)">torsion</a>, enabling elastic deforming without damage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many leaves rely on <a href="Hydrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic">hydrostatic</a> support arranged around a skeleton of vascular tissue for their strength, which depends on maintaining leaf water status. Both the mechanics and architecture of the leaf reflect the need for transportation and support. Read and Stokes (2006) consider two basic models, the "hydrostatic" and "I-beam leaf" form (see Fig 1).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hydrostatic leaves such as in <i><a href="Prostanthera_lasianthos" title="Prostanthera lasianthos">Prostanthera lasianthos</a></i> are large and thin, and may involve the need for multiple leaves rather single large leaves because of the amount of veins needed to support the periphery of large leaves. But large leaf size favors efficiency in photosynthesis and water conservation, involving further trade offs. On the other hand, I-beam leaves such as <i><a href="Banksia_marginata" title="Banksia marginata">Banksia marginata</a></i> involve specialized structures to stiffen them. These I-beams are formed from bundle sheath extensions of <a href="Sclerenchyma" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerenchyma">sclerenchyma</a> meeting stiffened sub-epidermal layers. This shifts the balance from reliance on hydrostatic pressure to structural support, an obvious advantage where water is relatively scarce.

<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long narrow leaves bend more easily than ovate leaf blades of the same area. Monocots typically have such linear leaves that maximize surface area while minimizing self-shading. In these a high proportion of longitudinal main veins provide additional support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interactions_with_other_organisms">Interactions with other organisms</h3></div>

<p>Although not as nutritious as other organs such as fruit, leaves provide a food source for many organisms. The leaf is a vital source of energy production for the plant, and plants have evolved protection against animals that consume leaves, such as <a href="Tannin" title="Tannin">tannins</a>, chemicals which hinder the digestion of proteins and have an unpleasant taste. Animals that are specialized to eat leaves are known as <a href="Folivore" title="Folivore">folivores</a>.

</p><p>Some species have <a href="Crypsis" title="Crypsis">cryptic</a> adaptations by which they use leaves in avoiding predators. For example, the caterpillars of <a href="Tortricidae" title="Tortricidae">some leaf-roller moths</a> will create a small home in the leaf by folding it over themselves. Several other <a href="Lepidopteran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepidopteran">lepidopteran</a> larvae modify leaves for shelter; perhaps the greatest variety of shelter types occurs among the <a href="Skipper_butterflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Skipper butterflies">skipper butterflies</a> (Hesperiidae), which will cut, fold, and bind leaves using <a href="Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="Pamphiliidae" title="Pamphiliidae">sawflies</a> similarly roll the leaves of their food plants into tubes. Females of the <a href="Attelabidae" title="Attelabidae">Attelabidae</a>, so-called leaf-rolling weevils, lay their eggs into leaves that they then roll up as means of protection. Other herbivores and their predators <a href="Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimic</a> the appearance of the leaf. Reptiles such as some chameleons, and insects such as some <a href="Tettigoniidae" title="Tettigoniidae">katydids</a>, also mimic the oscillating movements of leaves in the wind, moving from side to side or back and forth while evading a possible threat.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seasonal_leaf_loss">Seasonal leaf loss</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Autumn_leaf_color" title="Autumn leaf color">Autumn leaf color</a></div>

<p>Leaves in <a href="Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a>, <a href="Boreal_ecosystem" title="Boreal ecosystem">boreal</a>, and seasonally dry zones may be seasonally deciduous (falling off or dying for the inclement season). This mechanism to shed leaves is called <a href="Abscission" title="Abscission">abscission</a>. When the leaf is shed, it leaves a leaf scar on the twig. In cold autumns, they sometimes <a href="Autumn_leaf_color" title="Autumn leaf color">change color</a>, and turn <a href="Yellow" title="Yellow">yellow</a>, bright-<a href="Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">orange</a>, or <a href="Red" title="Red">red</a>, as various accessory pigments (<a href="Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> and <a href="Xanthophyll" title="Xanthophyll">xanthophylls</a>) are revealed when the tree responds to cold and reduced <a href="Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> by curtailing chlorophyll production. Red <a href="Anthocyanin" title="Anthocyanin">anthocyanin</a> pigments are now thought to be produced in the leaf as it dies, possibly to mask the yellow hue left when the chlorophyll is lost—yellow leaves appear to attract herbivores such as <a href="Aphids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphids">aphids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoring_et_al2009_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoring_et_al2009-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Optical masking of chlorophyll by anthocyanins reduces risk of photo-oxidative damage to leaf cells as they senesce, which otherwise may lower the efficiency of nutrient retrieval from senescing autumn leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeild_et_al2001_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeild_et_al2001-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_adaptation">Evolutionary adaptation</h2></div>

<p>In the course of <a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, leaves have adapted to different <a href="Environment_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (biophysical)">environments</a> in the following ways:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Waxy</a> micro- and nanostructures on the surface reduce wetting by rain and adhesion of contamination (<i>See <a href="Lotus_effect" title="Lotus effect">Lotus effect</a></i>).</li>

<li>Divided and compound leaves reduce wind resistance and promote cooling.</li>

<li>Hairs on the leaf surface trap humidity in dry climates and create a <a href="Boundary_layer" title="Boundary layer">boundary layer</a> reducing water loss.</li>

<li><a href="Wax" title="Wax">Waxy</a> plant cuticles reduce water loss.</li>

<li>Large surface area provides a large area for capture of sunlight.</li>

<li>In harmful levels of sunlight, specialized leaves, opaque or partly buried, admit light through a translucent <a href="Leaf_window" title="Leaf window">leaf window</a> for photosynthesis at inner leaf surfaces (e.g. <i><a href="Fenestraria" title="Fenestraria">Fenestraria</a></i>).</li>

<li>Kranz leaf anatomy in plants which perform <a href="C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C<sub>4</sub> carbon fixation</a></li>

<li><a href="Succulent" class="mw-redirect" title="Succulent">Succulent</a> leaves store water and organic acids for use in <a href="CAM_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="CAM photosynthesis">CAM photosynthesis</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Aromatic_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic oil">Aromatic oils</a>, <a href="Poisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Poisons">poisons</a> or <a href="Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">pheromones</a> produced by leaf borne glands deter herbivores (e.g. <a href="Eucalypts" class="mw-redirect" title="Eucalypts">eucalypts</a>).</li>

<li>Inclusions of crystalline minerals deter herbivores (e.g. silica <a href="Phytolith" title="Phytolith">phytoliths</a> in grasses, <a href="Raphides" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphides">raphides</a> in <a href="Araceae" title="Araceae">Araceae</a>).</li>

<li><a href="Petal" title="Petal">Petals</a> attract pollinators.</li>

<li><a href="Spine_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spine (botany)">Spines</a> protect the plants from herbivores (e.g. <a href="Cactus" title="Cactus">cacti</a>).</li>

<li><a href="Stinging_plant" title="Stinging plant">Stinging hairs</a> to protect against herbivory, e.g. in <i><a href="Urtica_dioica" title="Urtica dioica">Urtica dioica</a></i> and <i><a href="Dendrocnide_moroides" title="Dendrocnide moroides">Dendrocnide moroides</a></i> (<a href="Urticaceae" title="Urticaceae">Urticaceae</a>).</li>

<li>Special leaves on carnivorous plants are adapted for trapping food, mainly invertebrate prey, though some species trap small vertebrates as well (see <a href="Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">carnivorous plants</a>).</li>

<li><a href="Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulbs</a> store food and water (e.g. <a href="Onion" title="Onion">onions</a>).</li>

<li><a href="Tendril" title="Tendril">Tendrils</a> allow the plant to climb (e.g. peas).</li>

<li><a href="Bract" title="Bract">Bracts</a> and <a href="Pseudanthium" title="Pseudanthium">pseudanthia</a> (false flowers) replace normal flower structures when the true flowers are greatly reduced (e.g. <a href="Spurge" class="mw-redirect" title="Spurge">spurges</a>, <a href="Spathe" class="mw-redirect" title="Spathe">spathes</a> in the <a href="Araceae" title="Araceae">Araceae</a> and <a href="Pseudanthium" title="Pseudanthium">floral heads</a> in the <a href="Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a>).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Glossary_of_leaf_morphology" title="Glossary of leaf morphology">Glossary of leaf morphology</a>, <a href="Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Glossary of plant morphology</a>, and <a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Glossary of botanical terms</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shape">Shape</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Glossary_of_leaf_morphology#Leaf_and_leaflet_shapes" title="Glossary of leaf morphology">Glossary of leaf morphology § Leaf and leaflet shapes</a></div>

<p>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edge_(margin)">Edge (margin)</h3></div>

<p>The <i>edge</i> or <i>margin</i> is the outside perimeter of a leaf. The terms are interchangeable.

</p>

<th scope="col" class="unsortable">Image

</th>

<th scope="col">Term

</th>

<th scope="col">Latin

</th>

<th scope="col">Description

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Entire</td>

<td><i>Forma</i><br><i>integra</i></td>

<td>Even; with a smooth margin; without toothing

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Ciliate</td>

<td><i>ciliatus</i></td>

<td>Fringed with hairs

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Crenate</td>

<td><i>crenatus</i></td>

<td>Wavy-toothed; dentate with rounded teeth

</td></tr>

<tr>

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</style><span class="vanchor"><span class="vanchor-text">crenulate</span></span></td>

<td><i>crenulatus</i></td>

<td>Finely crenate

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><span class="vanchor"><span class="vanchor-text">crisped</span></span></td>

<td><i>crispus</i></td>

<td>Curly

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Dentate</td>

<td><i>dentatus</i></td>

<td>Toothed;

<p>may be <b>coarsely dentate</b>, having large teeth

</p><p>or <b>glandular dentate</b>, having teeth which bear glands

</p>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Denticulate</td>

<td><i>denticulatus</i></td>

<td>Finely toothed

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Doubly serrate</td>

<td><i>duplicato-dentatus</i></td>

<td>Each tooth bearing smaller teeth

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Serrate</td>

<td><i>serratus</i></td>

<td>Saw-toothed; with asymmetrical teeth pointing forward

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Serrulate</td>

<td><i>serrulatus</i></td>

<td>Finely serrate

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Sinuate</td>

<td><i>sinuosus</i></td>

<td>With deep, wave-like indentations; coarsely crenate

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Lobate</td>

<td><i>lobatus</i></td>

<td>Indented, with the indentations not reaching the center

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Undulate</td>

<td><i>undulatus</i></td>

<td>With a wavy edge, shallower than sinuate

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Spiny or pungent</td>

<td><i>spiculatus</i></td>

<td>With stiff, sharp points such as <a href="Thistle" title="Thistle">thistles</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>

</p>

<th scope="col" class="unsortable">Image

</th>

<th scope="col">Term

</th>

<th scope="col">Latin

</th>

<th scope="col">Description

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Acuminate</td>

<td>Long-pointed, prolonged into a narrow, tapering point in a concave manner

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Acute</td>

<td>Ending in a sharp, but not prolonged point

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Cuspidate</td>

<td>With a sharp, elongated, rigid tip; tipped with a cusp

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Emarginate</td>

<td>Indented, with a shallow notch at the tip

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Mucronate</td>

<td>Abruptly tipped with a small short point

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Mucronulate</td>

<td>Mucronate, but with a noticeably diminutive spine

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Obcordate</td>

<td>Inversely heart-shaped

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Obtuse</td>

<td>Rounded or blunt

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Truncate</td>

<td>Ending abruptly with a flat end

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>

</p>

<dl><dt>Acuminate</dt>

<dd>Coming to a sharp, narrow, prolonged point.</dd>

<dt>Acute</dt>

<dd>Coming to a sharp, but not prolonged point.</dd>

<dt>Auriculate</dt>

<dd>Ear-shaped.</dd>

<dt>Cordate</dt>

<dd>Heart-shaped with the notch towards the stalk.</dd>

<dt>Cuneate</dt>

<dd>Wedge-shaped.</dd>

<dt>Hastate</dt>

<dd>Shaped like an halberd and with the basal lobes pointing outward.</dd>

<dt>Oblique</dt>

<dd>Slanting.</dd>

<dt>Reniform</dt>

<dd>Kidney-shaped but rounder and broader than long.</dd>

<dt>Rounded</dt>

<dd>Curving shape.</dd>

<dt>Sagittate</dt>

<dd>Shaped like an arrowhead and with the acute basal lobes pointing downward.</dd>

<dt>Truncate</dt>

<dd>Ending abruptly with a flat end, that looks cut off.</dd></dl>

<p>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface">Surface</h3></div>

<p>The leaf surface is also host to a large variety of <a href="Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a>; in this context it is referred to as the <a href="Phyllosphere" title="Phyllosphere">phyllosphere</a>.

</p>

<dl><dt>Lepidote</dt>

<dd>Covered with fine scurfy scales.</dd></dl>

<p>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hairiness">Hairiness</h3></div>

<p>"Hairs" on plants are properly called <a href="Trichome" title="Trichome">trichomes</a>. Leaves can show several degrees of hairiness. The meaning of several of the following terms can overlap.

</p>

<dl><dt>Arachnoid, or arachnose</dt>

<dd>With many fine, entangled hairs giving a cobwebby appearance.</dd>

<dt>Barbellate</dt>

<dd>With finely barbed hairs (barbellae).</dd>

<dt>Bearded</dt>

<dd>With long, stiff hairs.</dd>

<dt>Bristly</dt>

<dd>With stiff hair-like prickles.</dd>

<dt>Canescent</dt>

<dd>Hoary with dense grayish-white <a href="Pubescence_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pubescence (botany)">pubescence</a>.</dd>

<dt>Ciliate</dt>

<dd>Marginally fringed with short hairs (cilia).</dd>

<dt>Ciliolate</dt>

<dd>Minutely ciliate.</dd>

<dt>Floccose</dt>

<dd>With flocks of soft, woolly hairs, which tend to rub off.</dd>

<dt>Glabrescent</dt>

<dd>Losing hairs with age.</dd>

<dt>Glabrous</dt>

<dd>No hairs of any kind present.</dd>

<dt>Glandular</dt>

<dd>With a gland at the tip of the hair.</dd>

<dt>Hirsute</dt>

<dd>With rather rough or stiff hairs.</dd>

<dt>Hispid</dt>

<dd>With rigid, bristly hairs.</dd>

<dt>Hispidulous</dt>

<dd>Minutely hispid.</dd>

<dt>Hoary</dt>

<dd>With a fine, close grayish-white pubescence.</dd>

<dt>Lanate, or lanose</dt>

<dd>With woolly hairs.</dd>

<dt>Pilose</dt>

<dd>With soft, clearly separated hairs.</dd>

<dt>Puberulent, or puberulous</dt>

<dd>With fine, minute hairs.</dd>

<dt>Pubescent</dt>

<dd>With soft, short and erect hairs.</dd>

<dt>Scabrous, or scabrid</dt>

<dd>Rough to the touch.</dd>

<dt>Sericeous</dt>

<dd>Silky appearance through fine, straight and appressed (lying close and flat) hairs.</dd>

<dt>Silky</dt>

<dd>With adpressed, soft and straight pubescence.</dd>

<dt>Stellate, or stelliform</dt>

<dd>With star-shaped hairs.</dd>

<dt>Strigose</dt>

<dd>With appressed, sharp, straight and stiff hairs.</dd>

<dt>Tomentose</dt>

<dd>Densely pubescent with matted, soft white woolly hairs.</dd></dl>

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="cano-tomentose"><dfn>Cano-tomentose</dfn></dt><dd>Between canescent and tomentose.</dd><dt id="felted-tomentose"><dfn>Felted-tomentose</dfn></dt><dd>Woolly and matted with curly hairs.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Tomentulose</dt>

<dd>Minutely or only slightly tomentose.</dd>

<dt>Villous</dt>

<dd>With long and soft hairs, usually curved.</dd>

<dt>Woolly</dt>

<dd>With long, soft and tortuous or matted hairs.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timing">Timing</h3></div>

<dl><dt>Hysteranthous</dt>

<dd>Developing after the flowers <sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>

<dt>Synanthous</dt>

<dd>Developing at the same time as the flowers <sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venation">Venation</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classification">Classification</h4></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Hickey primary venation types</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">1. Pinnate venation, <a href="Ostrya_virginiana" title="Ostrya virginiana">Ostrya virginiana</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">2. Parallel venation, <i><a href="Iris_(plant)" title="Iris (plant)">Iris</a></i></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">3. Campylodromous venation, <i><a href="Maianthemum_bifolium" title="Maianthemum bifolium">Maianthemum bifolium</a></i></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">4. Acrodromous venation (basal), <i><a href="Miconia_calvescens" title="Miconia calvescens">Miconia calvescens</a></i></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">5. Actinodromous venation (suprabasal), <i>Givotia moluccana</i></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">6. Palinactodromous venation, <i><a href="Platanus_orientalis" title="Platanus orientalis">Platanus orientalis</a></i></div></div></div></div></div>

<p>A number of different classification systems of the patterns of leaf veins (venation or veination) have been described,<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> starting with Ettingshausen (1861),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEttingshausen1861_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEttingshausen1861-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> together with many different descriptive terms, and the terminology has been described as "formidable".<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the commonest among these is the Hickey system, originally developed for "<a href="Dicotyledons" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicotyledons">dicotyledons</a>" and using a number of Ettingshausen's terms derived from Greek (1973–1979):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey1973_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey1973-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickeyWolfe1975_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickeyWolfe1975-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey1979_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey1979-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<i>see also</i>: Simpson Figure 9.12, p. 468)<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hickey_system">Hickey system</h5></div>

<dl><dt>1. <a href="Pinnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnate">Pinnate</a> (feather-veined, reticulate, pinnate-netted, penniribbed, penninerved, or penniveined)</dt>

<dd>The veins arise <a href="Pinnately" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnately">pinnately</a> (feather like) from a single primary vein (mid-vein) and subdivide into secondary veinlets, known as higher order veins. These, in turn, form a complicated network. This type of venation is typical for (but by no means limited to) "<a href="Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">dicotyledons</a>" (non monocotyledon <a href="Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>). E.g., <i><a href="Ostrya" title="Ostrya">Ostrya</a></i>.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> There are three subtypes of pinnate venation:</dd></dl>

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="''craspedodromous''_(greek:_''kraspedon''_–_edge,_''dromos''_–_running)"><dfn> <i>Craspedodromous</i> (Greek: <i>kraspedon</i> – edge, <i>dromos</i> – running)</dfn></dt><dd> The major veins reach to the margin of the leaf.</dd><dt id="''camptodromous''"><dfn> <i>Camptodromous</i></dfn></dt><dd> Major veins extend close to the margin, but bend before they intersect with the margin.</dd><dt id="''hyphodromous''"><dfn> <i>Hyphodromous</i></dfn></dt><dd> All secondary veins are absent, rudimentary or concealed</dd></dl><p> These in turn have a number of further subtypes such as eucamptodromous, where secondary veins curve near the margin without joining adjacent secondary veins.

</p><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:432px;max-width:432px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Pinnate</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Craspedodromous</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Camptodromous</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Hyphodromous</div></div></div></div></div>

<dl><dt>2. Parallelodromous (parallel-veined, parallel-ribbed, parallel-nerved, penniparallel, striate)</dt>

<dd>Two or more primary veins originating beside each other at the leaf base, and running <a href="Parallel_(geometry)" title="Parallel (geometry)">parallel</a> to each other to the apex and then converging there. Commissural veins (small veins) connect the major parallel veins. Typical for most <a href="Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">monocotyledons</a>, such as <a href="Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a>.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> The additional terms marginal (primary veins reach the margin), and reticulate (net-veined) are also used.</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Parallelodromous</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div></div></div>

<dl><dt>3. Campylodromous (<i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">campylos</i></span></i> – curve)</dt>

<dd>Several primary veins or branches originating at or close to a single point and running in recurved arches, then converging at apex. E.g. <i><a href="Maianthemum" title="Maianthemum">Maianthemum</a></i> .</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Campylodromous</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div></div></div>

<dl><dt>4. Acrodromous</dt>

<dd>Two or more primary or well developed secondary veins in convergent arches towards apex, without basal recurvature as in Campylodromous. May be basal or suprabasal depending on origin, and perfect or imperfect depending on whether they reach to 2/3 of the way to the apex. E.g., <i><a href="Miconia" title="Miconia">Miconia</a></i> (basal type), <i><a href="Endlicheria" title="Endlicheria">Endlicheria</a></i> (suprabasal type).</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:316px;max-width:316px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Acrodromous</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Imperfect basal</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Imperfect suprabasal</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Perfect basal</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Perfect suprabasal</div></div></div></div></div>

<dl><dt>5. Actinodromous</dt>

<dd>Three or more primary veins diverging radially from a single point. E.g., <i><a href="Arcangelisia" title="Arcangelisia">Arcangelisia</a></i> (basal type), <i><a href="Givotia" class="mw-redirect" title="Givotia">Givotia</a></i> (suprabasal type).</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:158px;max-width:158px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Actinodromous</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Imperfect marginal</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Imperfect reticulate </div></div></div></div></div>

<dl><dt>6. Palinactodromous</dt>

<dd>Primary veins with one or more points of secondary dichotomous branching beyond the primary divergence, either closely or more distantly spaced. E.g., <i><a href="Platanus" title="Platanus">Platanus</a></i>.</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Palinactodromous</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div></div></div>

<p>Types 4–6 may similarly be subclassified as basal (primaries joined at the base of the blade) or suprabasal (diverging above the blade base), and perfect or imperfect, but also flabellate.

</p><p>At about the same time, Melville (1976) described a system applicable to all Angiosperms and using Latin and English terminology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelville1976_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville1976-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melville also had six divisions, based on the order in which veins develop.

</p>

<dl><dt>Arbuscular (arbuscularis)</dt>

<dd>Branching repeatedly by regular dichotomy to give rise to a three dimensional bush-like structure consisting of linear segment (2 subclasses)</dd>

<dt>Flabellate (flabellatus)</dt>

<dd>Primary veins straight or only slightly curved, diverging from the base in a fan-like manner (4 subclasses)</dd>

<dt>Palmate (palmatus)</dt>

<dd>Curved primary veins (3 subclasses)</dd>

<dt>Pinnate (pinnatus)</dt>

<dd>Single primary vein, the midrib, along which straight or arching secondary veins are arranged at more or less regular intervals (6 subclasses)</dd>

<dt>Collimate (collimatus)</dt>

<dd>Numerous longitudinally parallel primary veins arising from a transverse meristem (5 subclasses)</dd>

<dt>Conglutinate (conglutinatus)</dt>

<dd>Derived from fused pinnate leaflets (3 subclasses)</dd></dl>

<p>A modified form of the Hickey system was later incorporated into the Smithsonian classification (1999) which proposed seven main types of venation, based on the architecture of the primary veins, adding Flabellate as an additional main type. Further classification was then made on the basis of secondary veins, with 12 further types, such as;

</p>

<dl><dt>Brochidodromous</dt>

<dd>Closed form in which the secondaries are joined in a series of prominent arches, as in <i><a href="Hildegardia_(plant)" title="Hildegardia (plant)">Hildegardia</a></i>.</dd>

<dt>Craspedodromous</dt>

<dd>Open form with secondaries terminating at the margin, in toothed leaves, as in <i><a href="Celtis" title="Celtis">Celtis</a></i>.</dd>

<dt>Eucamptodromous</dt>

<dd>Intermediate form with upturned secondaries that gradually diminish apically but inside the margin, and connected by intermediate tertiary veins rather than loops between secondaries, as in <i><a href="Cornus" title="Cornus">Cornus</a></i>.</dd>

<dt>Cladodromous</dt>

<dd>Secondaries freely branching toward the margin, as in <i><a href="Rhus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhus">Rhus</a></i>.</dd></dl>

<p>terms which had been used as subtypes in the original Hickey system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:396px;max-width:396px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Secondary venation patterns</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Brochidodromous</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Craspedodromous</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Eucamptodromous</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cladodromous</div></div></div></div></div>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:653px;max-width:653px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Brochidodromous<br><i><a href="Hildegardia_(plant)" title="Hildegardia (plant)">Hildegardia migeodii</a></i></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Craspedodromous<br><i><a href="Celtis_occidentalis" title="Celtis occidentalis">Celtis occidentalis</a></i></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Eucamptodromous<br><i><a href="Cornus_officinalis" title="Cornus officinalis">Cornus officinalis</a></i></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:197px;max-width:197px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cladodromous<br><i><a href="Rhus_ovata" title="Rhus ovata">Rhus ovata</a></i></div></div></div></div></div>

<p>Further descriptions included the higher order, or minor veins and the patterns of areoles (<i>see</i> Leaf Architecture Working Group, Figures 28–29).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<dl><dt>Flabellate</dt>

<dd>Several to many equal fine basal veins diverging radially at low angles and branching apically. E.g. <i><a href="Paranomus" title="Paranomus">Paranomus</a></i>.</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Flabellate</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div></div></div>

<p>Analyses of vein patterns often fall into consideration of the vein orders, primary vein type, secondary vein type (major veins), and minor vein density. A number of authors have adopted simplified versions of these schemes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJudd_et_al2007_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudd_et_al2007-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its simplest the primary vein types can be considered in three or four groups depending on the plant divisions being considered;

</p>

<ul><li>pinnate</li>

<li>palmate</li>

<li>parallel</li></ul>

<p>where palmate refers to multiple primary veins that radiate from the petiole, as opposed to branching from the central main vein in the pinnate form, and encompasses both of Hickey types 4 and 5, which are preserved as subtypes; e.g., palmate-acrodromous (<i>see</i> National Park Service Leaf Guide).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlorissant_Leaf_Key2016_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlorissant_Leaf_Key2016-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<dl><dt>Palmate, Palmate-netted, palmate-veined, fan-veined</dt>

<dd>Several main veins of approximately equal size <a href="Divergence" title="Divergence">diverge</a> from a common point near the leaf base where the petiole attaches, and radiate toward the edge of the leaf. Palmately veined leaves are often lobed or divided with lobes radiating from the common point. They may vary in the number of primary veins (3 or more), but always radiate from a common point.<sup id="cite_ref-KlingLv_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KlingLv-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. most <a href="Maple" title="Maple"><i>Acer</i></a> (maples).</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Palmate</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_systems">Other systems</h5></div>

<p>Alternatively, Simpson uses:<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<dl><dt>Uninervous</dt>

<dd>Central midrib with no lateral veins (<a href="Microphyllous" class="mw-redirect" title="Microphyllous">microphyllous</a>), seen in the non-seed bearing <a href="Tracheophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheophytes">tracheophytes</a>, such as <a href="Horsetails" class="mw-redirect" title="Horsetails">horsetails</a></dd>

<dt>Dichotomous</dt>

<dd>Veins successively branching into equally sized veins from a common point, forming a Y junction, fanning out. Among temperate woody plants, <i><a href="Ginkgo_biloba" title="Ginkgo biloba">Ginkgo biloba</a></i> is the only species exhibiting dichotomous venation. Also some <a href="Fern" title="Fern">pteridophytes</a> (ferns).<sup id="cite_ref-KlingLv_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KlingLv-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>

<dt>Parallel</dt>

<dd>Primary and secondary veins roughly parallel to each other, running the length of the leaf, often connected by short perpendicular links, rather than form networks. In some species, the parallel veins join at the base and apex, such as needle-type evergreens and grasses. Characteristic of monocotyledons, but exceptions include <i><a href="Arisaema" title="Arisaema">Arisaema</a></i>, and as below, under netted.<sup id="cite_ref-KlingLv_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KlingLv-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>

<dt>Netted (reticulate, pinnate)</dt>

<dd>A prominent midvein with secondary veins branching off along both sides of it. The name derives from the ultimate veinlets which form an interconnecting net like pattern or network. (The primary and secondary venation may be referred to as pinnate, while the net like finer veins are referred to as netted or reticulate); most non-monocot angiosperms, exceptions including <i><a href="Calophyllum" title="Calophyllum">Calophyllum</a></i>. Some monocots have reticulate venation, including <i><a href="Colocasia" title="Colocasia">Colocasia</a></i>, <i><a href="Dioscorea" title="Dioscorea">Dioscorea</a></i> and <i><a href="Smilax" title="Smilax">Smilax</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-KlingLv_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KlingLv-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:295px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Equisetum" title="Equisetum">Equisetum</a></i>:<br>Reduced microphyllous leaves (L) arising in whorl from node</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:288px;max-width:288px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:295px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Ginkgo_biloba" title="Ginkgo biloba">Ginkgo biloba</a></i>:<br>Dichotomous venation</div></div></div></div></div>

<p>However, these simplified systems allow for further division into multiple subtypes. Simpson,<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (and others)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerg2007_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerg2007-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> divides parallel and netted (and some use only these two terms for Angiosperms)<sup id="cite_ref-AMVen_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AMVen-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the basis of the number of primary veins (costa) as follows;

</p>

<dl><dt>Parallel</dt>

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="penni-parallel_(pinnate,_pinnate_parallel,_unicostate_parallel)"><dfn> Penni-parallel (pinnate, pinnate parallel, unicostate parallel)</dfn></dt><dd> Single central prominent midrib, secondary veins from this arise perpendicularly to it and run parallel to each other towards the margin or tip, but do not join (anastomose). The term unicostate refers to the prominence of the single midrib (costa) running the length of the leaf from base to apex. e.g. <a href="Zingiberales" title="Zingiberales">Zingiberales</a>, such as <a href="Musa_(genus)" title="Musa (genus)">Bananas</a> etc.</dd><dt id="palmate-parallel_(multicostate_parallel)"><dfn> Palmate-parallel (multicostate parallel)</dfn></dt><dd> Several equally prominent primary veins arising from a single point at the base and running parallel towards tip or margin. The term multicostate refers to having more than one prominent main vein. e.g. <a href="Fan_palm" title="Fan palm">"fan" (palmate) palms</a> (Arecaceae)

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="multicostate_parallel_convergent"><dfn> Multicostate parallel convergent</dfn></dt><dd> Mid-veins converge at apex e.g. <i><a href="Bambusa_arundinacea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bambusa arundinacea">Bambusa arundinacea</a></i> = <i>B. bambos</i> (Aracaceae), <i><a href="Eichornia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eichornia">Eichornia</a></i></dd><dt id="multicostate_parallel_divergent"><dfn> Multicostate parallel divergent</dfn></dt><dd> Mid-veins diverge more or less parallel towards the margin e.g. <i><a href="Borassus" title="Borassus">Borassus</a></i> (Poaceae), fan palms</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Netted (Reticulate)</dt>

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="pinnately_(veined,_netted,_unicostate_reticulate)"><dfn> Pinnately (veined, netted, unicostate reticulate)</dfn></dt><dd> Single prominent midrib running from base to apex, secondary veins arising on both sides along the length of the primary midrib, running towards the margin or apex (tip), with a network of smaller veinlets forming a reticulum (mesh or network). e.g. <i><a href="Mangifera" title="Mangifera">Mangifera</a></i>, <i><a href="Ficus_religiosa" title="Ficus religiosa">Ficus religiosa</a></i>, <i><a href="Psidium_guajava" title="Psidium guajava">Psidium guajava</a></i>, <i><a href="Hibiscus_rosa-sinensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibiscus rosa-sinensis">Hibiscus rosa-sinensis</a></i>, <i><a href="Salix_alba" title="Salix alba">Salix alba</a></i></dd><dt id="palmately_(multicostate_reticulate)"><dfn> Palmately (multicostate reticulate)</dfn></dt><dd> More than one primary veins arising from a single point, running from base to apex. e.g. <i><a href="Liquidambar_styraciflua" title="Liquidambar styraciflua">Liquidambar styraciflua</a></i> This may be further subdivided;

<dl class="glossary"><dt id="multicostate_convergent"><dfn> Multicostate convergent</dfn></dt><dd> Major veins diverge from origin at base then converge towards the tip. e.g. <i><a href="Zizyphus" class="mw-redirect" title="Zizyphus">Zizyphus</a></i>, <i>Smilax</i>, <i><a href="Cinnamomum" title="Cinnamomum">Cinnamomum</a></i></dd><dt id="multicostate_divergent"><dfn> Multicostate divergent</dfn></dt><dd> All major veins diverge towards the tip. e.g. <i><a href="Gossypium" title="Gossypium">Gossypium</a></i>, <i><a href="Cucurbita" title="Cucurbita">Cucurbita</a></i>, <i><a href="Carica_papaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Carica papaya">Carica papaya</a></i>, <i><a href="Ricinus_communis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ricinus communis">Ricinus communis</a></i></dd></dl></dd><dt id="ternately_(ternate-netted)"><dfn> Ternately (ternate-netted)</dfn></dt><dd> Three primary veins, as above, e.g. (<i>see</i>) <i><a href="Ceanothus_leucodermis" title="Ceanothus leucodermis">Ceanothus leucodermis</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonCl_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonCl-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="Ceanothus_tomentosus" title="Ceanothus tomentosus">C. tomentosus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonCt_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonCt-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="Encelia_farinosa" title="Encelia farinosa">Encelia farinosa</a></i></dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:792px;max-width:792px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Simpson venation patterns</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:256px;max-width:256px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:190px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Maranta_leuconeura" title="Maranta leuconeura">Maranta leuconeura</a></i> var. <i>erythroneura</i> (<a href="Zingiberales" title="Zingiberales">Zingiberales</a>):<br>Penni-parallel</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:266px;max-width:266px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:190px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Coccothrinax_argentea" title="Coccothrinax argentea">Coccothrinax argentea</a></i> (Arecaceae):<br>Palmate-parallel</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:117px;max-width:117px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:190px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Bambusa_bambos" title="Bambusa bambos">Bambusa bambos</a></i>:<br>Multicostate parallel convergent</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:190px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Borassus" title="Borassus">Borassus</a></i> sp.:<br>Multicostate parallel divergent</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:53px;max-width:53px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Salix_alba" title="Salix alba">Salix alba</a></i>:<br>Pinnately netted</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:321px;max-width:321px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Liquidambar_styraciflua" title="Liquidambar styraciflua">Liquidambar styraciflua</a></i>:<br>Palmately netted</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Ziziphus_jujuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziziphus jujuba">Ziziphus jujuba</a></i>:<br>Multicostate palmate convergent</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:166px;max-width:166px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Gossypium_tomentosum" title="Gossypium tomentosum">Gossypium tomentosum</a></i>:<br>Multicostate palmate divergent</div></div></div></div></div>

<p>These complex systems are not used much in morphological descriptions of taxa, but have usefulness in plant identification,

<sup id="cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although criticized as being unduly burdened with jargon.<sup id="cite_ref-HLlv_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HLlv-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>An older, even simpler system, used in some flora<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen_et_al2011_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen_et_al2011-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> uses only two categories, open and closed.

</p>

<ul><li>Open: Higher order veins have free endings among the cells and are more characteristic of non-monocotyledon angiosperms. They are more likely to be associated with leaf shapes that are toothed, lobed or compound. They may be subdivided as;

<ul><li>Pinnate (feather-veined) leaves, with a main central vein or rib (midrib), from which the remainder of the vein system arises</li>

<li>Palmate, in which three or more main ribs rise together at the base of the leaf, and diverge upward.</li>

<li>Dichotomous, as in ferns, where the veins fork repeatedly</li></ul></li>

<li>Closed: Higher order veins are connected in loops without ending freely among the cells. These tend to be in leaves with smooth outlines, and are characteristic of monocotyledons.

<ul><li>They may be subdivided into whether the veins run parallel, as in grasses, or have other patterns.</li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_descriptive_terms">Other descriptive terms</h4></div>

<p>There are also many other descriptive terms, often with very specialized usage and confined to specific taxonomic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeotropikey2017_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeotropikey2017-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conspicuousness of veins depends on a number of features. These include the width of the veins, their prominence in relation to the lamina surface and the degree of opacity of the surface, which may hide finer veins. In this regard, veins are called <b>obscure</b> and the order of veins that are obscured and whether upper, lower or both surfaces, further specified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxford_herbaria_glossary2017_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_herbaria_glossary2017-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KlingLv_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KlingLv-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Terms that describe vein prominence include <b>bullate</b>, <b>channelled</b>, <b>flat</b>, <b>guttered</b>, <b>impressed</b>, <b>prominent</b> and <b>recessed</b> (<i>Fig</i>. 6.1 Hawthorne & Lawrence 2013).<sup id="cite_ref-HLlv_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HLlv-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxHerbVp_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxHerbVp-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Veins may show different types of prominence in different areas of the leaf. For instance <i><a href="Pimenta_racemosa" title="Pimenta racemosa">Pimenta racemosa</a></i> has a channeled midrib on the upper surface, but this is prominent on the lower surface.<sup id="cite_ref-HLlv_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HLlv-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Describing vein prominence:

</p>

<dl><dt>Bullate</dt>

<dd>Surface of leaf raised in a series of domes between the veins on the upper surface, and therefore also with marked depressions. e.g. <i>Rytigynia pauciflora</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerdcourtBridson1991_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerdcourtBridson1991-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="Vitis_vinifera" title="Vitis vinifera">Vitis vinifera</a></i></dd>

<dt>Channelled (canalicululate)</dt>

<dd>Veins sunken below the surface, resulting in a rounded channel. Sometimes confused with "guttered" because the channels may function as gutters for rain to run off and allow drying, as in many <a href="Melastomataceae" title="Melastomataceae">Melastomataceae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hemsley254_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hemsley254-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. (<i>see</i>) <i><a href="Pimenta_racemosa" title="Pimenta racemosa">Pimenta racemosa</a></i> (Myrtaceae),<sup id="cite_ref-OxHerbPimrac_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxHerbPimrac-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="Clidemia_hirta" class="mw-redirect" title="Clidemia hirta">Clidemia hirta</a></i> (Melastomataceae).</dd>

<dt>Guttered</dt>

<dd>Veins partly prominent, the crest above the leaf lamina surface, but with channels running along each side, like gutters</dd>

<dt>Impressed</dt>

<dd>Vein forming raised line or ridge which lies below the plane of the surface which bears it, as if pressed into it, and are often exposed on the lower surface. Tissue near the veins often appears to pucker, giving them a sunken or embossed appearance</dd>

<dt>Obscure</dt>

<dd>Veins not visible, or not at all clear; if unspecified, then not visible with the naked eye. e.g. <i><a href="Berberis_gagnepainii" title="Berberis gagnepainii">Berberis gagnepainii</a></i>. In this <i>Berberis</i>, the veins are only obscure on the undersurface.<sup id="cite_ref-CullenBgag_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CullenBgag-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>

<dt>Prominent</dt>

<dd>Vein raised above surrounding surface so to be easily felt when stroked with finger. e.g. (<i>see</i>) <i><a href="Pimenta_racemosa" title="Pimenta racemosa">Pimenta racemosa</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-OxHerbPimrac_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxHerbPimrac-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="Spathiphyllum_cannifolium" title="Spathiphyllum cannifolium">Spathiphyllum cannifolium</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-KwantlenSpcan_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KwantlenSpcan-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>

<dt>Recessed</dt>

<dd>Vein is sunk below the surface, more prominent than surrounding tissues but more sunken in channel than with impressed veins. e.g. <i><a href="Viburnum_plicatum" title="Viburnum plicatum">Viburnum plicatum</a></i>.</dd></dl>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:693px;max-width:693px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Types of vein prominence</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:203px;max-width:203px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Vitis_vinifera" title="Vitis vinifera">Vitis vinifera</a></i><br> Bullate</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:203px;max-width:203px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Clidemia_hirta" class="mw-redirect" title="Clidemia hirta">Clidemia hirta</a></i><br> Channeled</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:280px;max-width:280px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Cornus_mas" title="Cornus mas">Cornus mas</a></i><br>Impressed</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Berberis_gagnepainii" title="Berberis gagnepainii">Berberis gagnepainii</a></i><br> Obscure (under surface)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Spathiphyllum_cannifolium" title="Spathiphyllum cannifolium">Spathiphyllum cannifolium</a></i><br> Prominent</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="Viburnum_plicatum" title="Viburnum plicatum">Viburnum plicatum</a></i><br> Recessed</div></div></div></div></div>

<p>Describing other features:

</p>

<dl><dt><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-plinerved" class="extiw external" title="wikt:-plinerved">Plinervy</a> (plinerved)</dt>

<dd>More than one main vein (nerve) at the base. Lateral secondary veins branching from a point above the base of the leaf. Usually expressed as a <a href="Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a>, as in 3-plinerved or triplinerved leaf. In a 3-plinerved (triplinerved) leaf three main veins branch above the base of the lamina (two secondary veins and the main vein) and run essentially parallel subsequently, as in <i><a href="Ceanothus" title="Ceanothus">Ceanothus</a></i> and in <i><a href="Celtis_occidentalis" title="Celtis occidentalis">Celtis</a></i>. Similarly, a quintuplinerve (five-veined) leaf has four secondary veins and a main vein. A pattern with 3–7 veins is especially conspicuous in <a href="Melastomataceae" title="Melastomataceae">Melastomataceae</a>. The term has also been used in <a href="Vaccinieae" title="Vaccinieae">Vaccinieae</a>. The term has been used as synonymous with acrodromous, palmate-acrodromous or suprabasal acrodromous, and is thought to be too broadly defined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPedraza-Peñalosa2013_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPedraza-Peñalosa2013-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPedraza-Peñalosa2013_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPedraza-Peñalosa2013-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>

<dt>Scalariform</dt>

<dd>Veins arranged like the rungs of a ladder, particularly higher order veins</dd>

<dt>Submarginal</dt>

<dd>Veins running close to leaf margin</dd>

<dt>Trinerved</dt>

<dd>2 major basal nerves besides the midrib</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diagrams_of_venation_patterns">Diagrams of venation patterns</h4></div>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Image

</th>

<th>Term

</th>

<th>Description

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Arcuate</td>

<td>Secondary arching toward the apex

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Dichotomous</td>

<td>Veins splitting in two

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Longitudinal</td>

<td>All veins aligned mostly with the midvein

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Parallel</td>

<td>All veins parallel and not intersecting

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Pinnate</td>

<td>Secondary veins borne from midrib

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Reticulate</td>

<td>All veins branching repeatedly, net veined

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Rotate</td>

<td>Veins coming from the center of the leaf and radiating toward the edges

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Transverse</td>

<td>Tertiary veins running perpendicular to axis of main vein, connecting secondary veins

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Leaf_size" title="Leaf size">Leaf size</a></div>

<p>The terms <b>megaphyll</b>, <b>macrophyll</b>, <b>mesophyll</b>, <b>notophyll</b>, <b>microphyll</b>, <b>nanophyll</b> and <b>leptophyll</b> are used to describe leaf sizes (in descending order), in a classification devised in 1934 by <a href="Christen_C._Raunki%C3%A6r" title="Christen C. Raunkiær">Christen C. Raunkiær</a> and since modified by others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitten_et_al1997_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitten_et_al1997-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_leaf_morphology" title="Glossary of leaf morphology">Glossary of leaf morphology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_plant_morphology#Leaves" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Glossary of plant morphology § Leaves</a></li>

<li><a href="Crown_(botany)" title="Crown (botany)">Crown (botany)</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of leaves">Evolutionary history of leaves</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology#Evolution_of_leaves" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development of leaves</a></li>

<li><a href="Leaf_area_index" title="Leaf area index">Leaf area index</a></li>

<li><a href="Leaf_protein_concentrate" title="Leaf protein concentrate">Leaf protein concentrate</a></li>

<li><a href="Leaf_sensor" title="Leaf sensor">Leaf sensor</a> – a device that measures the moisture level in plant leaves</li>

<li><a href="Leaf_shape" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf shape">Leaf shape</a></li>

<li><a href="Vernation" title="Vernation">Vernation</a> – sprouting of leaves, also the arrangement of leaves in the bud</li>

<li><a href="Musical_leaf" title="Musical leaf">Musical leaf</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cactus-art.biz/note-book/Dictionary/Dictionary_S/dictionary_shoot_system.htm">"Shoot system"</a>. <i>Dictionary of botanic terminology</i>. Cactus Art Nursery. n.d. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210504055224/https://www.cactus-art.biz/note-book/Dictionary/Dictionary_S/dictionary_shoot_system.htm">Archived</a> from the original on May 4, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames_et_al1999-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames_et_al1999_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames_et_al1999">James et al 1999</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewartRothwell1993">Stewart & Rothwell 1993</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooney-SovettsSattler1987-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooney-SovettsSattler1987_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooney-SovettsSattler1987">Cooney-Sovetts & Sattler 1987</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsukaya2013-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsukaya2013_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsukaya2013">Tsukaya 2013</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeugier2006-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeugier2006_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeugier2006">Feugier 2006</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell2016-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell2016_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurcell2016">Purcell 2016</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillert_et_al1992-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillert_et_al1992_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillert_et_al1992">Willert et al 1992</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayer1982-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayer1982_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBayer1982">Bayer 1982</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011p.&nbsp;356_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2011">Simpson 2011</a>, p. 356.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrogh2010-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrogh2010_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrogh2010">Krogh 2010</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamesBell2000-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesBell2000_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamesBell2000">James & Bell 2000</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeywood_et_al2007-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeywood_et_al2007_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeywood_et_al2007">Heywood et al 2007</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2011pp.&nbsp;356–357-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2011pp.&nbsp;356–357_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2011">Simpson 2011</a>, pp. 356–357.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallé1977-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallé1977_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHallé1977">Hallé 1977</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reinhardt and Kuhlemeier, p. 175</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFYonekuraIwamotoFujitaSugiyama2019" class="citation journal cs1">Yonekura, Takaaki; Iwamoto, Akitoshi; Fujita, Hironori; Sugiyama, Munetaka (June 6, 2019). Umulis, David (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6553687">"Mathematical model studies of the comprehensive generation of major and minor phyllotactic patterns in plants with a predominant focus on orixate phyllotaxis"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. <b>15</b> (6): e1007044. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PLSCB..15E7044Y">2019PLSCB..15E7044Y</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1007044">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007044</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1553-7358">1553-7358</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6553687">6553687</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31170142">31170142</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERolland-Lagan_et_al2009-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERolland-Lagan_et_al2009_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRolland-Lagan_et_al2009">Rolland-Lagan et al 2009</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalls2011-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalls2011_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalls2011_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalls2011_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalls2011">Walls 2011</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickison2000-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickison2000_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickison2000_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickison2000_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDickison2000">Dickison 2000</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudall2007-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudall2007_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudall2007_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudall2007">Rudall 2007</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SimpsonLv-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonLv_28-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2011">Simpson 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dj8KRImgyf4C&pg=PA465">Leaf venation pp. 465–468</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESackScoffoni2013_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSackScoffoni2013">Sack & Scoffoni 2013</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001">Roth-Nebelsick et al 2001</a>.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERunions_et_al2005-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERunions_et_al2005_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRunions_et_al2005">Runions et al 2005</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-MMsvt-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MMsvt_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMasseyMurphy1996">Massey & Murphy 1996</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/botnet/glossary/b_iv.html">Surface-Venation-Texure</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagchi_et_al2016-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagchi_et_al2016_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagchi_et_al2016">Bagchi et al 2016</a>.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClements1905-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements1905_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClements1905">Clements 1905</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECouder_et_al2002-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECouder_et_al2002_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCouder_et_al2002">Couder et al 2002</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECorson_et_al2009-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorson_et_al2009_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorson_et_al2009">Corson et al 2009</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaguna_et_al2008-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaguna_et_al2008_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaguna_et_al2008">Laguna et al 2008</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArber1950-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArber1950_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArber1950">Arber 1950</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERutishauserSattler1997-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutishauserSattler1997_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRutishauserSattler1997">Rutishauser & Sattler 1997</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacroix_et_al2003-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacroix_et_al2003_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacroix_et_al2003">Lacroix et al 2003</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckardtBaum2010-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEckardtBaum2010_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEckardtBaum2010">Eckardt & Baum 2010</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPoiréWiese-KlinkenbergParentMielewczik2010" class="citation journal cs1">Poiré, Richard; Wiese-Klinkenberg, Anika; Parent, Boris; Mielewczik, Michael; Schurr, Ulrich; Tardieu, François; Walter, Achim (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852670">"Diel time-courses of leaf growth in monocot and dicot species: endogenous rhythms and temperature effects"</a>. <i>Journal of Experimental Botany</i>. <b>61</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1751–</span>1759. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjxb%2Ferq049">10.1093/jxb/erq049</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1460-2431">1460-2431</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852670">2852670</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20299442">20299442</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMielewczikFriedliKirchgessnerWalter2013" class="citation journal cs1">Mielewczik, Michael; Friedli, Michael; Kirchgessner, Norbert; Walter, Achim (July 25, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3750653">"Diel leaf growth of soybean: a novel method to analyze two-dimensional leaf expansion in high temporal resolution based on a marker tracking approach (Martrack Leaf)"</a>. <i>Plant Methods</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 30. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PlMet...9...30M">2013PlMet...9...30M</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1746-4811-9-30">10.1186/1746-4811-9-30</a></span>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F76534">20.500.11850/76534</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1746-4811">1746-4811</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3750653">3750653</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23883317">23883317</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFriedliWalter2015" class="citation journal cs1">Friedli, Michael; Walter, Achim (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pce.12407">"Diel growth patterns of young soybean ( G lycine max ) leaflets are synchronous throughout different positions on a plant"</a>. <i>Plant, Cell & Environment</i>. <b>38</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">514–</span>524. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PCEnv..38..514F">2015PCEnv..38..514F</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpce.12407">10.1111/pce.12407</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-7791">0140-7791</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25041284">25041284</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadStokes2006_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReadStokes2006">Read & Stokes 2006</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGreeneyJones2003" class="citation journal cs1">Greeney, Harold F; Jones, Meg T (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/partpdf/266551">"Shelter building in the Hesperiidae: a classification scheme for larval shelters"</a>. <i>The Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera</i>. <b>37</b>: <span class="nowrap">27–</span>36. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5962%2Fp.266551">10.5962/p.266551</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 13,</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoring_et_al2009-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoring_et_al2009_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoring_et_al2009">Doring et al 2009</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeild_et_al2001-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeild_et_al2001_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeild_et_al2001">Feild et al 2001</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203015400/http://www.kew.org/Glossary/hysteranthous.htm?prefix=h">"Kew Glossary – definition of hysteranthous"</a>. December 3, 2013. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 12,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203015354/http://www.kew.org/Glossary/synanthous.htm?prefix=s">"Kew Glossary – definition of synanthous"</a>. December 3, 2013. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 12,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEttingshausen1861-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEttingshausen1861_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEttingshausen1861">Ettingshausen 1861</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey1973-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey1973_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHickey1973">Hickey 1973</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickeyWolfe1975-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickeyWolfe1975_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHickeyWolfe1975">Hickey & Wolfe 1975</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey1979-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey1979_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHickey1979">Hickey 1979</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville1976-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelville1976_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMelville1976">Melville 1976</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999">Leaf Architecture Working Group 1999</a>.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlorissant_Leaf_Key2016-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlorissant_Leaf_Key2016_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlorissant_Leaf_Key2016">Florissant Leaf Key 2016</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-KlingLv-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KlingLv_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KlingLv_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KlingLv_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KlingLv_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KlingLv_61-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKling_et_al2005">Kling et al 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://woodyplantstutorial.nres.illinois.edu/venation/">Leaf Venation</a></span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AMVen-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AMVen_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAngiosperm_Morphology2017">Angiosperm Morphology 2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iii/angiosperm-morphology/venation.php">Venation</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SimpsonCl-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonCl_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2017">Simpson 2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/plants/sdpls/plants/Ceanothus_leucodermis.html"><i>Ceanothus leucodermis</i></a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SimpsonCt-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SimpsonCt_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2017">Simpson 2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/plants/sdpls/plants/Ceanothus_tomentosus.html"><i>Ceanothus tomentosus</i></a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-HLlv-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HLlv_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HLlv_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HLlv_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHawthorneLawrence2013">Hawthorne & Lawrence 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CNFuyOVTSf4C&pg=PA135">Leaf venation pp. 135–136</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen_et_al2011-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen_et_al2011_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCullen_et_al2011">Cullen et al 2011</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeotropikey2017-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeotropikey2017_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeotropikey2017">Neotropikey 2017</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_herbaria_glossary2017-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxford_herbaria_glossary2017_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOxford_herbaria_glossary2017">Oxford herbaria glossary 2017</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-OxHerbVp-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OxHerbVp_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOxford_herbaria_glossary2017">Oxford herbaria glossary 2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://herbaria-old.plants.ox.ac.uk/vfh/image/?glossary=show&alpha=V#vein_prominence">Vein prominence</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerdcourtBridson1991-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerdcourtBridson1991_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVerdcourtBridson1991">Verdcourt & Bridson 1991</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Hemsley254-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hemsley254_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHemsleyPoole2004">Hemsley & Poole 2004</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Eub0D4QWXIC&pg=PA254">Leaf morphology and drying p. 254</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-OxHerbPimrac-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OxHerbPimrac_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxHerbPimrac_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2017">Hughes 2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://herbaria-old.plants.ox.ac.uk/vfh/image/index.php?item=1327&character_image=7164"><i>Pimenta racemosa</i></a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-CullenBgag-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CullenBgag_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCullen_et_al2011">Cullen et al 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zKOyo9qv2HsC&pg=PA398"><i>Berberis gagnepainii</i> vol. II p. 398</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-KwantlenSpcan-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KwantlenSpcan_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKwantlen2015">Kwantlen 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plantdatabase.kpu.ca/plant/plantDetail/1640"><i>Spathiphyllum cannifolium</i></a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPedraza-Peñalosa2013-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPedraza-Peñalosa2013_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPedraza-Peñalosa2013_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPedraza-Peñalosa2013">Pedraza-Peñalosa 2013</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitten_et_al1997-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitten_et_al1997_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhitten_et_al1997">Whitten et al 1997</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWebb1959" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Leonard_Webb_(academic)" title="Leonard Webb (academic)">Webb, Len</a> (October 1, 1959). "A Physiognomic Classification of Australian Rain Forests". <i>Journal of Ecology</i>. <b>47</b> (3). British Ecological Society : Journal of Ecology Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 551–570: 555. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959JEcol..47..551W">1959JEcol..47..551W</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2257290">10.2307/2257290</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2257290">2257290</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_and_chapters">Books and chapters</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFArber1950" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Agnes_Arber" title="Agnes Arber">Arber, Agnes</a> (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dvc8AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Natural Philosophy of Plant Form</i></a>. <a href="CUP_Archive" class="mw-redirect" title="CUP Archive">CUP Archive</a>. GGKEY:HCBB8RZREL4.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBayer1982" class="citation book cs1">Bayer, M. B. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rgQmAQAAMAAJ"><i>The New Haworthia Handbook</i></a>. Kirstenbosch: <a href="National_Botanic_Gardens_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="National Botanic Gardens of South Africa">National Botanic Gardens of South Africa</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-620-05632-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906232414/https://books.google.com/books?id=rgQmAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on September 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBerg2007" class="citation book cs1">Berg, Linda (March 23, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xu5sCgAAQBAJ"><i>Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment, Media Edition</i></a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-111-79426-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCullen_et_al2011" class="citation book cs1">Cullen, James; Knees, Sabina G.; Cubey, H. Suzanne Cubey, eds. (2011) [1984–2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/life-sciences/series/european-garden-flora"><i>The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass. 5 vols</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161228033727/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/life-sciences/series/european-garden-flora">Archived</a> from the original on December 28, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCutter1969" class="citation book cs1">Cutter, E.G. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oRJHAAAAYAAJ"><i>Plant Anatomy, experiment and interpretation, Part 2 Organs</i></a>. London: Edward Arnold. p. 117. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7131-2302-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDickison2000" class="citation book cs1">Dickison, William C. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-os1kvkFbS0C"><i>Integrative Plant Anatomy</i></a>. <a href="Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-08-050891-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEsau2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Esau, Katherine</a> (2006) [1953]. Evert, Ray F (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0DhEBA5xgbkC"><i>Esau's Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development</i></a> (3rd. ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-04737-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906232323/https://books.google.com/books?id=0DhEBA5xgbkC">Archived</a> from the original on September 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEttingshausen1861" class="citation book cs1">Ettingshausen, C. (1861). <i>Die Blatt-Skelete der Dicotyledonen mit besonderer Ruchsicht auf die Untersuchung und Bestimmung der fossilen Pflanzenreste</i>. Vienna: Classification of the Architecture of Dicotyledonous.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHaupt1953" class="citation book cs1">Haupt, Arthur Wing (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plantmorphology00haup"><i>Plant morphology</i></a>. <a href="McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHawthorneLawrence2013" class="citation book cs1">Hawthorne, William; Lawrence, Anna (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CNFuyOVTSf4C"><i>Plant Identification: Creating User-Friendly Field Guides for Biodiversity Management</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-136-55972-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHemsleyPoole2004" class="citation book cs1">Hemsley, Alan R.; Poole, Imogen, eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Eub0D4QWXIC"><i>The Evolution of Plant Physiology</i></a>. <a href="Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-08-047272-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHeywood_et_al2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Vernon_Heywood" title="Vernon Heywood">Heywood, V.H.</a>; Brummitt, R.K.; <a href="Alastair_Culham" title="Alastair Culham">Culham, A.</a>; Seberg, O. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X2tnQgAACAAJ"><i>Flowering plant families of the world</i></a>. New York: Firefly books. p. 287. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-55407-206-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHickey1979" class="citation book cs1">Hickey, LJ. <i>A revised classification of the architecture of dicotyledonous leaves</i>. pp. i 5–39.</cite>, in <a href="#CITEREFMetcalfeChalk1979">Metcalfe & Chalk (1979)</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJudd_et_al2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Walter_S_Judd" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter S Judd">Judd, Walter S.</a>; Campbell, Christopher S.; Kellogg, Elizabeth A.; <a href="Peter_F._Stevens" title="Peter F. Stevens">Stevens, Peter F.</a>; <a href="Michael_Donoghue" title="Michael Donoghue">Donoghue, Michael J.</a> (2007) [1st ed. 1999, 2nd 2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kr3uAAAAMAAJ"><i>Plant systematics: a phylogenetic approach</i></a> (3rd ed.). Sinauer Associates. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87893-407-2</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906232323/https://books.google.com/books?id=kr3uAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on September 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKrogh2010" class="citation cs2">Krogh, David (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ph7NSAAACAAJ"><i>Biology: A Guide to the Natural World</i></a> (5th ed.), Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, p. 463, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-321-61655-5</bdi>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230124144510/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ph7NSAAACAAJ">archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2016</span></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLeaf_Architecture_Working_Group1999" class="citation book cs1">Leaf Architecture Working Group (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~pdw3/1999_MLA.pdf"><i>Manual of Leaf Architecture - morphological description and categorization of dicotyledonous and net-veined monocotyledonous angiosperms</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9677554-0-3</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161020045657/http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~pdw3/1999_MLA.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 20, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMarloth1913–1932" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Rudolf_Marloth" title="Rudolf Marloth">Marloth, Rudolf</a> (1913–1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxBAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Flora of South Africa: With Synopical Tables of the Genera of the Higher Plants. 6 vols</i></a>. Cape Town: Darter Bros. & Co. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906232323/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxBAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on September 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 27,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMauseth2009" class="citation book cs1">Mauseth, James D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E3oaqR_owy4C"><i>Botany: an introduction to plant biology</i></a> (4th ed.). Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7637-5345-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfeChalk1979" class="citation book cs1">Metcalfe, CR; Chalk, L, eds. (1979) [1957]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=28AnMQAACAAJ"><i>Anatomy of the Dicotyledons: Leaves, stem and wood in relation to taxonomy, with notes on economic uses. 2 vols</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-854383-1</bdi>.</cite>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPrance1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Ghillean_Tolmie_Prance" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghillean Tolmie Prance">Prance, Ghillean Tolmie</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fX_wAAAAMAAJ"><i>Leaves: the formation, characteristics and uses of hundreds of leaves found in all parts of the world</i></a>. Photographs by Kjell B. Sandved. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-500-54104-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRudall2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Paula_Rudall" title="Paula Rudall">Rudall, Paula J.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cSO8HOKyabgC"><i>Anatomy of flowering plants: an introduction to structure and development</i></a> (3rd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-69245-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906232323/https://books.google.com/books?id=cSO8HOKyabgC">Archived</a> from the original on September 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 27,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2011" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Michael G. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ia2eIPVksMMC"><i>Plant Systematics</i></a>. Academic Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-08-051404-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117231834/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ia2eIPVksMMC">Archived</a> from the original on January 17, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStewartRothwell1993" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Wilson N; Rothwell, Gar W. (1993) [1983]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fhm-oed74JgC"><i>Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-38294-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVerdcourtBridson1991" class="citation book cs1">Verdcourt, Bernard; Bridson, Diane M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SjZcm-PU8VMC"><i>Flora of tropical East Africa - Rubiaceae Volume 3</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-6191-357-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWhitten_et_al1997" class="citation book cs1">Whitten, Tony; Soeriaatmadja, Roehayat Emon; Afiff, Suraya A. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_pIcG_aZGjsC&pg=PA505"><i>Ecology of Java and Bali</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 505. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-962-593-072-5</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906232324/https://books.google.com/books?id=_pIcG_aZGjsC&pg=PA505">Archived</a> from the original on September 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 27,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWillert_et_al1992" class="citation book cs1">Willert, Dieter J. von; Eller, BM; Werger, MJA; Brinckmann, E; Ihlenfeldt, H-D (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gDs9AAAAIAAJ"><i>Life Strategies of Succulents in Deserts: With Special Reference to the Namib Desert</i></a>. <a href="CUP_Archive" class="mw-redirect" title="CUP Archive">CUP Archive</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-24468-8</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles_and_theses">Articles and theses</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBagchi_et_al2016" class="citation journal cs1">Bagchi, Debjani; Dasgupta, Avik; Gondaliya, Amit D.; Rajput, Kishore S. (2016). "Insights from the Plant World: A Fractal Analysis Approach to Tune Mechanical Rigidity of Scaffolding Matrix in Thin Films". <i>Advanced Materials Research</i>. <b>1141</b>: <span class="nowrap">57–</span>64. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4028%2Fwww.scientific.net%2FAMR.1141.57">10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1141.57</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:138338270">138338270</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFClements1905" class="citation journal cs1">Clements, Edith Schwartz (December 1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1746&context=bioscifacpub">"The Relation of Leaf Structure to Physical Factors"</a>. <i><a href="Transactions_of_the_American_Microscopical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Transactions of the American Microscopical Society">Transactions of the American Microscopical Society</a></i>. <b>26</b>: <span class="nowrap">19–</span>98. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3220956">10.2307/3220956</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3220956">3220956</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230804205226/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1746&context=bioscifacpub">Archived</a> from the original on August 4, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 6,</span> 2023</span>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFRoth-Nebelsick_et_al2001" class="citation journal cs1">Roth-Nebelsick, A; Uhl, Dieter; Mosbrugger, Volker; Kerp, Hans (May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fanbo.2001.1391">"Evolution and Function of Leaf Venation Architecture: A Review"</a>. <i><a href="Annals_of_Botany" title="Annals of Botany">Annals of Botany</a></i>. <b>87</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">553–</span>566. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001AnBot..87..553R">2001AnBot..87..553R</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fanbo.2001.1391">10.1006/anbo.2001.1391</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRunions_et_al2005" class="citation book cs1">Runions, Adam; Fuhrer, Martin; Lane, Brendan; Federl, Pavol; Rolland-Lagan, Anne-Gaëlle; Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw (January 1, 2005). "Modeling and visualization of leaf venation patterns". <i>ACM SIGGRAPH 2005 Papers</i>. Vol. 24. pp. <span class="nowrap">702–</span>711. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.102.1926">10.1.1.102.1926</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1186822.1073251">10.1145/1186822.1073251</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781450378253</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2629700">2629700</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRutishauserSattler1997" class="citation journal cs1">Rutishauser, R.; Sattler, R. (1997). "Expression of shoot processes in leaf development of <i>Polemonium caeruleum</i>". <i>Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik</i>. <b>119</b>: <span class="nowrap">563–</span>582.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSackScoffoni2013" class="citation journal cs1">Sack, Lawren; Scoffoni, Christine (June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.12253">"Leaf venation: structure, function, development, evolution, ecology and applications in the past, present and future"</a>. <i><a href="New_Phytologist" title="New Phytologist">New Phytologist</a></i>. <b>198</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">983–</span>1000. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013NewPh.198..983S">2013NewPh.198..983S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.12253">10.1111/nph.12253</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23600478">23600478</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJames_et_al1999" class="citation journal cs1">Shelley, A.J.; Smith, W.K.; Vogelmann, T.C. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2656937">"Ontogenetic differences in mesophyll structure and chlorophyll distribution in <i>Eucalyptus globulus</i> ssp. <i>globulus</i> (Myrtaceae)"</a>. <i><a href="American_Journal_of_Botany" title="American Journal of Botany">American Journal of Botany</a></i>. <b>86</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">198–</span>207. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2656937">10.2307/2656937</a></span>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2656937">2656937</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21680359">21680359</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTsukaya2013" class="citation journal cs1">Tsukaya, Hirokazu (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3711357">"Leaf Development"</a>. <i>The Arabidopsis Book</i>. <b>11</b>: e0163. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1199%2Ftab.0163">10.1199/tab.0163</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3711357">3711357</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23864837">23864837</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFUeno_et_al2006" class="citation journal cs1">Ueno, Osamu; Kawano, Yukiko; Wakayama, Masataka; Takeda, Tomoshiro (April 1, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2803656">"Leaf Vascular Systems in C<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub> Grasses: A Two-dimensional Analysis"</a>. <i><a href="Annals_of_Botany" title="Annals of Botany">Annals of Botany</a></i>. <b>97</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">611–</span>621. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faob%2Fmcl010">10.1093/aob/mcl010</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2803656">2803656</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16464879">16464879</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWalls2011" class="citation journal cs1">Walls, R. L. (January 25, 2011). "Angiosperm leaf vein patterns are linked to leaf functions in a global-scale data set". <i><a href="American_Journal_of_Botany" title="American Journal of Botany">American Journal of Botany</a></i>. <b>98</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">244–</span>253. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011AmJB...98..244W">2011AmJB...98..244W</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.1000154">10.3732/ajb.1000154</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21613113">21613113</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Websites">Websites</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBuckach_et_al2017" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Bucksch, Alexander; Blonder, Benjamin; Price, Charles; Wing, Scott; Weitz, Joshua; Das, Abhiram (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140925043827/http://clearedleavesdb.org/">"Cleared Leaf Image Database"</a>. School of Biology, <a href="Georgia_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Institute of Technology">Georgia Institute of Technology</a>. Archived from the original on September 25, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 12,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGeneve" class="citation web cs1">Geneve, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160315062623/http://dept.ca.uky.edu/PLS220/leafmainpage.pdf">"Leaf"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>PLS 220: Introduction to plant identification</i>. University of Kentucky: Department of Horticulture. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dept.ca.uky.edu/PLS220/leafmainpage.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 15, 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKling_et_al2005" class="citation web cs1">Kling, Gary J.; Hayden, Laura L.; Potts, Joshua J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://woodyplantstutorial.nres.illinois.edu/">"Botanical terminology"</a>. <a href="University_of_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois">University of Illinois</a>, Urbana-Champaign. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170308051032/http://woodyplantstutorial.nres.illinois.edu/">Archived</a> from the original on March 8, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFde_KokBiffin2007" class="citation web cs1">de Kok, Rogier; Biffin, Ed (November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/cd-keys/peakey/key/The%20Pea%20Key/Media/Html/index.html">"The Pea Key: An interactive key for Australian pea-flowered legumes"</a>. Australian Pea-flowered Legume Research Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170226150100/http://anbg.gov.au/cpbr/cd-keys/peakey/key/The%20Pea%20Key/Media/Html/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 26, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKranz" class="citation web cs1">Kranz, Laura. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lauraakranz.com/vein-patterns-leaves/">"The Vein Patterns of Leaves"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Drawings)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170306033751/http://lauraakranz.com/vein-patterns-leaves/">Archived</a> from the original on March 6, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMasseyMurphy1996" class="citation web cs1">Massey, Jimmy R.; Murphy, James C. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/botnet/glossary/">"Vascular plant systematics"</a>. <i>NC Botnet</i>. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160117025929/http://www.ibiblio.org/botnet/glossary/">Archived</a> from the original on January 17, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/botnet/glossary/a_v.html">"Leaves"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160725170655/http://www.ibiblio.org/botnet/glossary/a_v.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 25, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite>, in <a href="#CITEREFMasseyMurphy1996">Massey & Murphy (1996)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPurcell2016" class="citation web cs1">Purcell, Adam (January 16, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology/leaves.php">"Leaves"</a>. <i>Basic Biology</i>. Adam Purcell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150419002416/http://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology/leaves.php">Archived</a> from the original on April 19, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2017" class="citation web cs1">Simpson, Michael G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/plants/sdpls/">"Plants of San Diego County, California"</a>. College of Science, <a href="San_Diego_State_University" title="San Diego State University">San Diego State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170303044642/http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/plants/sdpls/">Archived</a> from the original on March 3, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 2,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFlorissant_Leaf_Key2016" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170216150109/https://www.nps.gov/flfo/learn/education/upload/PlantPackage.pdf">"Florissant Fossil Beds Leaf Key"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="Florissant_Fossil_Beds_National_Monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument">Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument</a></i>. <a href="National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>, <a href="US_Department_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of the Interior">US Department of the Interior</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/flfo/learn/education/upload/PlantPackage.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 16, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKwantlen2015" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170921023245/http://plantdatabase.kpu.ca/plant/search.gsp">"Plant Database"</a>. School of Horticulture, <a href="Kwantlen_Polytechnic_University" title="Kwantlen Polytechnic University">Kwantlen Polytechnic University</a>. 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plantdatabase.kpu.ca/plant/search.gsp">the original</a> on September 21, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAngiosperm_Morphology2017" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200621215228/http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iii/angiosperm-morphology/angiosperm-morphologyindex.php">"Angiosperm Morphology"</a>. TutorVista. 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iii/angiosperm-morphology/angiosperm-morphologyindex.php">the original</a> on June 21, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Glossaries</dt></dl>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHughes2017" class="citation web cs1">Hughes, Colin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170305113254/http://herbaria-old.plants.ox.ac.uk/vfh/about/">"The virtual field herbarium"</a>. <a href="Oxford_University_Herbaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University Herbaria">Oxford University Herbaria</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://herbaria-old.plants.ox.ac.uk/vfh/about/">the original</a> on March 5, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 4,</span> 2017</span>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFOxford_herbaria_glossary2017" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170305034525/http://herbaria-old.plants.ox.ac.uk/vfh/image/index.php?glossary=show">"Plant Characteristics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://herbaria-old.plants.ox.ac.uk/vfh/image/index.php?glossary=show">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Glossary)</span> on March 5, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 4,</span> 2017</span>.</cite>, in <a href="#CITEREFHughes2017">Hughes (2017)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNeotropikey2017" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/glossary.htm#P">"Glossary of botanical terms"</a>. <i>Neotropikey</i>. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170121214009/http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/glossary.htm#P">Archived</a> from the original on January 21, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/education/images/GlossaryLeafShapes.pdf">"Illustrated glossary of leaf shapes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, <a href="Institute_of_Food_and_Agricultural_Sciences" title="Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences">Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences</a>, University of Florida. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200110130658/http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/education/images/GlossaryLeafShapes.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 10, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160204160841/http://www.donsgarden.co.uk/leafshapes">"Leafshapes"</a>. <i>Donsgarden</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.donsgarden.co.uk/leafshapes/">the original</a> on February 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <wbr><i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Leaves" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Leaves">Leaves</a></b></i> and <wbr><i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Leaf_veins" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Leaf veins">Leaf veins</a></b></i>.</div></div>

</div><div class="side-box side-box-right sistersitebox">

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/leaf" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:leaf">leaf</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFRendle1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Alfred_Barton_Rendle" title="Alfred Barton Rendle">Rendle, Alfred Barton</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leaf"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Leaf">"Leaf" </a></span>. <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). p. 322–329.</cite></li>

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</style><div id="Botany855" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li>

<li><a href="Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li>

<li><a href="Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li>

<li><a href="Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li>

<li><a href="Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li>

<li><a href="Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li>

<li><a href="Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li>

<li><a href="Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br><span class="nobold">(<a href="Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li>

<li><a href="Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li>

<li><a href="Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a>

<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Mesophyll">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li>

<li><a href="Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li>

<li><a href="Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li>

<li><a href="Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br>(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li>

<li><a href="Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li>

<li><a href="Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li>

<li><a href="Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li>

<li><a href="Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li>

<li><a href="Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li>

<li><a href="ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li>

<li><a href="Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li>

<li><a href="Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li>

<li><a href="Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li>

<li><a href="Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li>

<li><a href="Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a>

<ul><li><a href="Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li>

<li><a href="Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li>

<li><a href="Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li>

<li><a href="Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li>

<li><a href="Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li>

<li><a href="Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li>

<li><a href="Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li>

<li><a href="Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li>

<li><a href="Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li>

<li><a href="Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li>

<li><a href="Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li>

<li><a href="Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li>

<li><a href="Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li>

<li><a href="Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li>

<li><a href="Thorns%2C_spines%2C_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li>

<li><a href="Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br>Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li>

<li><a href="Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li>

<li><a href="Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li>

<li><a href="Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li>

<li><a href="Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li>

<li><a href="Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br>and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li>

<li><a href="Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li>

<li><a href="Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a>

<ul><li><a href="Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li>

<li><a href="Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li>

<li><a href="Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li>

<li><a href="Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a>

<ul><li><a href="Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li>

<li><a href="Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li>

<li><a href="Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li>

<li><a href="Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li>

<li><a href="Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a>

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li>

<li><a href="Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a>

<ul><li><a href="Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a>

<ul><li><a href="Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li>

<li><a href="Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a>

<ul><li><a href="Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li>

<li><a href="Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li>

<li><a href="Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae%2C_fungi%2C_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li>

<li><a href="Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li>

<li><a href="Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_oldest_trees" title="List of oldest trees">Oldest trees</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_superlative_trees" title="List of superlative trees">Superlative trees</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_tallest_trees" title="List of tallest trees">Tallest trees</a></li>

<li><a href="Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul>

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